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STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 

LOS  ANGELES,  CAJLJ>OHN1A 


UNIVERSITY  of  CALIFORNIA 

.\  r 

LUS  ANGELES 
LIBRARY 


.5.192' 

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APPLE  TREES  IN  BLOOM 
t 


SIXTY    LESSONS 
IN    AGRICULTURE 


BY 


BURT   C.    BUFFUM,    M.S. 

FORMERLY   DIRECTOR  OF  THE  WYOMING  EXPERIMENT   STATION 

AND  PROFESSOR  OF  AGRICULTURE  AND  HORTICULTURE 

UNIVERSITY   OF  WYOMING 

AND 

DAVID   CLEMENT   DEAVER 

PRACTICAL   FARMER 

2-4.  V  7  1- 


AMERICAN    BOOK   COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  CINCINNATI  CHICAGO 


COPYRIGHT,  1913,  BY 
B.  C.  BUFFUM   AND  D.  C.  DEAVER. 

COPYRIGHT,  1913,  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN. 


B.   AND   D     AGRICULTURE. 
E.  P.  I 


5495 


PREFACE 

THIS  book  is  intended  for  the  sixth,  seventh,  or 
eighth  grade ;  and  the  subject  matter  and  language 
are  well  within  the  range  of  pupils  of  these  grades. 
The  treatment  is  not  technical,  and  therefore  the 
book  can  be  used  in  schools  whose  teachers  have 
had  no  special  training  in  the  subject  of  school 
agriculture. 

The  aims  of  the  book  are  to  increase  the  efficiency 
of  farming  operations  and  to  improve  the  general 
character  of  farm  life  by  presenting  useful  informa- 
tion and  by  giving  directions  for  practical  labora- 
tory work  which  may  be  done  at  school  or  at  home. 
These  exercises  are  easy  to  perform  and  require 
no  special  apparatus.  If  this  experimental  work  is 
done  with  care,  the  pupil  will  acquire,  in  addition 
to  the  fundamental  facts  of  agriculture,  an  excellent 
training  in  scientific  methods. 

The  references  at  the  end  of  the  lessons  are 
mainly  the  Farmers'  Bulletins  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  which  can  be  obtained 
free  or  at  little  cost.  These  should  be  supplemented 
by  state  bulletins  and  other  available  references  bear- 
ing on  local  conditions.  The  teacher's  attention  is 


4  PREFACE 

called  particularly  to  the  following  bulletins  because 
of  their  great  usefulness  in  rural  school  agriculture : 

Exercises  in .  Elementary  Agriculture.  Bulletin 
1 86,  Experiment  Stations  Office,  Washington,  D.C. 

School  Exercises  in  Plant  Production.  Farmers' 
Bulletin,  408. 

Boys'  and  Girls'  Agricultural  Clubs.  Farmers' 
Bulletin,  385. 

School  Lessons  on  Corn.     Farmers'  Bulletin,  409. 

Forestry  in  Nature  Study.    Farmers'  Bulletin,  468. 

Fifty  Common  Birds  of  Farm  and  Orchard. 
Farmers'  Bulletin,  513. 


CONTENTS 


I.  FARMING 

II.  THE  FARM 

III.  THE  FARMER  AND  THE  WEATHER 

IV.  THE  SOIL 

V.  FERTILITY  OF  THE  SOIL         ... 

VI.  MOISTURE  IN  THE  SOIL          .        .        . 

VII.  TILLING  THE  SOIL 

VIII.  THE  PLOW  AND  PLOWING 

IX.  THE  PLANT  AND  THE  SOIL 

X.  THE  SEED  BED 

XI.  SEEDS 

XII.  GROWING  PLANTS  BY  CUTTINGS,  SCIONS,  AND  BUDS 

XIII.  TRANSPLANTING 

XIV.  SUNLIGHT  AND  PLANT  GROWTH     .... 
XV.  PLANTS  GROWN  ON  THE  FARM       .... 

XVI.  POWER  ON  THE  FARM 

XVII.  HARVESTING  CROPS 

XVIII.  FORAGE  CROPS 

XIX.  TIMOTHY  AND  CLOVER   .        . 

XX.  ALFALFA 

XXI.  MILLET,  SORGHUM,  AND  OTHER  CROPS 

XXII.  WHEAT   .  

XXIII.  CORN 

XXIV.  RICE 

XXV.  OATS 

XXVI.  BARLEY- 

XXVII.  RYE 

XXVIII.  COTTON 

XXIX.  FLAX,  HEMP,  AND  OTHER  FIBER  PLANTS     . 

5 


PAGE 

7 
10 

H 

21 
26 
31 

35 
40 

43 
46 

49 

52 

57 

61 

64 

69 

73 

79 

83 

87 

9i 

97 

103 

ii  i 

114 

118 

122 
I25 
130 


CONTENTS 


LESSON 

PAGE 

XXX. 

SUGAR  PLANTS        

•     '35 

XXXI. 

POTATOES        .        

.     141 

XXXII. 

MELONS,  PUMPKINS,  AND  CUCUMBERS    . 

.     147 

XXXIII. 

TOBACCO         

.     150 

XXXIV. 

VEGETABLE  GARDENING         .... 

.     154 

XXXV. 

CROPS  GROWN  FOR  BEVERAGES     . 

•     157 

XXXVI. 

LITTLE-KNOWN  PLANTS  

.     161 

XXXVII. 

POME  FRUITS          

.     167 

XXXVIII. 

STONE  FRUITS         

•     171 

XXXIX. 

CITRUS  FRUITS        

.     176 

XL. 

GRAPES  

.     180 

XLI. 

SMALL  FRUITS        

.     185 

XLII. 

NUTS       

.     189 

XLIII. 

FORESTRY        

.     194 

XLIV. 

WEEDS  AND  PLANT  DISEASES 

.     198 

XLV. 

MIXED  FARMING     

•     203 

XLVI. 

HORSES  

.     206 

XL  VI  I. 

CATTLE  

.      211 

XLVIII. 

SHEEP  AND  GOATS         

.     216 

XLIX. 

SWINE     

.      222 

L. 

POULTRY         

.      225 

U/  LI. 

INSECTS  

.      229 

LII. 

FOOD  OF  FARM  ANIMALS       .... 

•      237 

1311. 

THE  FARMER'S  FRIENDS         .... 

.      241 

LIV. 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS 

.      246 

LV. 

IRRIGATION  FARMING     

.      249 

LVI. 

DRAINAGE       

•      253 

LVII. 

DRY  FARMING         

.      2S6 

LVIII. 

BEAUTIFYING  THE  HOME  GROUNDS 

.      260 

LIX. 

THE  FARM  HOME  

.      264 

LX. 

THE  CALL  TO  THE  FARM       .... 

.      267 

INDEX 

260 

SIXTY  LESSONS  IN  AGRICULTURE 


FARMING 


Farming  a  business.  —  Farming  or  agriculture  is 
the  business  of  raising  crops  and  domestic  animals. 
A  crop  is  anything  grown  from  the  soil,  as  a  crop  of 
wheat,  a  crop  of  potatoes,  or  a  crop  of  apples. 

There  are  many  different  kinds  of  farming.  If  the 
farmer  cultivates  large  fields,  we  call  his  business 
agriculture,  which  means  field  culture.  If  domestic 
animals  are  raised  on  pasture  lands,  we  call  the  busi- 
ness grazing,  ranging,  or  herding.  The  business  of 

7 


8  FARMING 

cultivating  a  small  field,  an  orchard,  or  a  garden  is 
called  horticulture,  which  means  garden  culture. 
The  growing  of  flowers  is  called  floriculture.  The 
growing  of  trees  for  wood  or  lumber  is  called  forestry. 
Irrigation  farming  is  carried  on  in  dry  regions  by 
applying  water  from  streams  to  the  soil  by  means  of 
canals  or  water  pipes.  Dry  farming  is  carried  on  in 
regions  of  little  rainfall  by  special  methods  of  culti- 
vation which  partially  prevent  the  loss  of  soil 
moisture  by  evaporation. 

A  great  industry.  —  Agriculture  is  the  greatest  in- 
dustry in  the  world.  Through  it  we  get  food,  clothing, 
houses,  and  many  other  things  which  are  necessary 
to  our  comfort  and  happiness. 

Many  farm  products  must  be  made  over  or  manufac- 
tured into  more  useful  form  before  they  can  be  of 
service  to  man.  This  gives  rise  to  manufacturing, 
which  changes  raw  materials  into  useful  products. 
Most  of  the  raw  materials  in  manufacturing  come  from 
the  farm.  The  two  most  important  lines  of  manu- 
facturing are  the  making  of  food  products  and  clothing. 
Wheat  and  other  grains  are  ground  into  flour ;  milk 
and  cream  are  made  into  cheese  and  butter ;  cattle, 
hogs,  and  sheep  are  slaughtered  and  converted  into 
beef,  pork,  and  mutton;  and  cotton,  wool,  and  flax 
are  woven  into  cloth. 

Commerce.  —  Our  railroad  cars  and  ships  are 
loaded  mainly  with  farm  products  or  manufactures 
whose  raw  materials  come  from  the  farm.  Think  of 


FARMING  9 

the  large  crops  of  wheat,  corn,  vegetables,  and  fruits, 
and  the  great  number  of  live  stock  which  must  be 
shipped  from  the  farms  to  the  cities  of  our  country 
and  other  countries.  Think  of  the  farm  products 
which  we  get  from  other  lands,  rice,  bananas,  spices, 
coffee,  and  tea.  You  will  see  that  commerce,  which 
is  the  buying  and  selling  and  transportation  of  goods, 
deals  with  products  of  the  farm. 

Wealth.  -  -  The  true  wealth  of  the  world  is  the  result 
of  production  from  the  soil  and  from  labor.  We 
often  think  of  gold,  or  money,  as  wealth ;  but  it 
has  little  value  in  itself.  As  we  use  the  quart  to 
measure  milk,  and  the  bushel  to  measure  wheat  and 
corn,  so  we  use  gold  to  measure  the  value  of  our 
wealth.  If  we  could  not  exchange  money  for  the 
things  from  the  farm  that  we  must  have  in  order  to 
live,  all  the  money  in  the  world  would  not  be  so 
valuable  as  a  crust  of  bread. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  farming  ? 

2.  Name  and  define  the  several  kinds  of  farming. 

3.  What  kinds  of  farming  are  carried  on  in  the  region  in 
which  you  live  ? 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  most  important  products  of  the  soil  ? 

5.  Make  a  list  of  the  products  of  your  own  locality,  arrang- 
ing them  in  the  order  of  their  importance  to  the  community. 


LESSON  II 
THE   FARM 

What  constitutes  a  farm.  —  As  you  look  over  a  farm 
you  see  the  farmhouse,  the  barn  and  sheds,  the  garden 
and  orchard,  the  fields  and  fences,  the  road,  and  per- 
haps a  stream  of  water  and  a  wood  lot.  All  these 


MODERN  FARMHOUSE  AND  BARNS 

things  are  needed  upon  the  farm  in  order  to  carry  on 
the  work  which  we  call  farming. 

The  size  of  farms  varies  from  a  few  acres  to  thousands 
of  acres.  A  square  mile  or  section  of  land  contains 
640  acres,  and  farms  in  most  of  our  country  are  natural 
divisions  of  a  section.  A  half  section  contains  320 


THE    FARM 


II 


acres,  and  a  quarter  section  160  acres.     What  part  of 
a  section  is  80  acres  ?    40  acres  ? 

The  house  is  for  the  comfort  and  protection  of  the 
family,  and  the  barn  and  sheds  for  the  animals,  crops, 
implements,  and 
vehicles.  In  the 
garden  are  grown 
the  vegetables  and 
small  fruits.  In 
the  orchard  grow 
the  tree  and  bush 
fruits,  such  as  ap- 
ples, cherries,  and 
raspberries. 

Crops.  —  Usually 
several  kinds  of 
crops  and  domestic 
animals  are  raised 
upon  a  single  farm. 
In  any  particular 
year,  one  field  on 
the  farm  may  be 
in  corn,  one  in 
wheat,  one  in  clover  or  timothy  for  hay,  and  another  in 
grass  for  pasture.  In  the  pasture  the  live  stock  run 
free  to  graze  upon  the  growing  grass,  and  the  fences 
keep  them  from  the  other  crops. 

Water  supply.  —  Every  farm  must  have  a  supply  of 
water  for  the  use  of  the  family  and  the  farm  animals. 


A  FARM  WINDMILL 


12  THE   FARM 

Sometimes  the  supply  comes  from  a  spring,  but  most 
often  it  comes  from  wells  and  is  pumped  up  by  hand, 
windmill,  or  gasoline  engine.  On  some  farms  a  stream 
of  water  flows  across  the  fields,  and  this  is  used  by  the 
animals  for  drinking.  A  good,  pure  water  supply 
which  does  not  fail  during  a  long  drouth  of  summer  is 
of  great  value  to  the  farm. 


GOOD  ROADS  ARE  AN  AID  TO  THE  FARMER 

Woodlands.  -  -  The  wood  lot  produces  lumber  for 
buildings  and  fences  and  wood  for  fuel.  Very  often 
the  hilly  part  of  a  farm,  where  crops  cannot  be  success- 
fully grown,  is  kept  in  timber.  If  a  brook  or  creek 
flows  through  the  farm,  there  is  usually  a  strip  of  wood- 
land on  each  side  of  the  stream.  Such  a  woodland  is 
often  used  as  a  pasture  as  well  as  for  a  supply  of  timber. 
In  parts  of  the  country  the  wood  lot  consists  of  planted 
trees,  and  is  placed  where  it  protects  the  house  and 


THE   FARM  13 

barn  from  the  severe  cold  winds  of  the  winter  and  the 
destructive  storms  of  summer. 

Roads.  —  Every  farm  must  be  connected  with  the 
surrounding  country  by  roads.  Crops  must  be  hauled 
to  the  market  town  and  other  goods  brought  back. 
Members  of  the  family  must  travel  over  roads  in  going 
to  town,  church,  and  school,  and  in  making  neighbor- 
hood visits. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  most  important  features  of  a  good 
farm? 

2.  Learn  the  sizes  of  several  farms  in  your  neighborhood. 
What  is  the  average  size  ? 

3.  What  are  the  uses  of  a  wood  lot  ? 

4.  Of  what  value  are  good  roads  to  a  farmer  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  Draw  a  map  of  the  farm  on  which  you  live,  showing  the 
fields,  roads,  lanes,  wood  lot,  orchard,  garden,  house  and  lawn, 
barn  and  barn  lot,  and  other  lots. 

2.  If  you  do  not  live  on  a  farm,  draw  a  map  of  an  imaginary 
farm. 


LESSON   III 
THE  FARMER  AND   THE  WEATHER 

Weather  and  climate.  —  The  farmer  lives  in  close 
touch  with  nature.  He  is  working  with  plant  and 
animal  life  and  is  interested  in  all  those  things  that 
affect  plants  and  animals.  Perhaps  there  is  nothing 
of  greater  importance  to  him  than  weather  and  climate. 
Weather  is  the  condition  of  the  air  at  any  given  time. 
Climate  is  the  average  of  conditions  which  prevail  for 
a  long  time,  a  season,  a  year,  or  many  years.  The 
conditions  of  the  atmosphere  that  we  are  most  interested 
in  are  temperature,  moisture,  and  winds. 

Seasons.  —  You  have  noticed  how  plant  life  changes 
with  the  seasons.  During  cold  weather,  most  plants 
go  through  a  resting  period.  As  the  frosts  of  autumn 
come,  the  leaves  lose  their  green  color  and  finally  die. 
The  plants  then  remain  inactive  until  the  warm  spring 
comes  again.  The  seeds  which  ripen  in  fall  remain 
dormant  through  the  winter  and  begin  to  grow  when  the 
air  and  soil  become  warm  in  the  spring.  As  the  days 
grow  longer  and  warmer  the  plants  grow  more  rapidly, 
until  they  mature  in  midsummer  or  early  fall. 

Work  changes  with  the  seasons.  -  -  The  seasons 
largely  control  the  work  upon  the  farm.  The  times  of 


THE  FARMER  AND  THE  WEATHER     15 

planting  and  harvesting  are  the  busiest  seasons,  while 
the  winter  is  the  time  of  least  work,  although  the  good 
farmer  can  find  plenty  of  work  to  do  even  in  the  winter. 
The  work  from  day  to  day  is  controlled  by  the  weather. 
A  heavy  rain  may  prevent  the  farmer  from  tilling  the 
soil  or  harvesting  the  hay  or  grain.  A  clear  day  with 
dry  air  is  just  the  time  for  cutting  hay  so  that  it  will 
dry  quickly. 

A  great  problem.  -  -  The  growing  season  is  the  most 
important  time  of  year  for  the  farmer.  It  is  the 
period  from  the  last  killing  frost  of  spring  to  the  first 
killing  frost  of  autumn.  The  longer  the  growing  season, 
the  greater  is  the  yield  of  farm  products.  One  of  the 
great  problems  for  the  farmer  is  to  arrange  the  planting 
of  his  crops  to  avoid  the  killing  frosts  of  spring  and 
yet  have  them  mature  before  the  autumn  frosts.  A 
late  frost  in  the  spring  or  early  summer  sometimes 
does  great  damage  to  plants,  especially  to  fruit  trees. 
An  early  frost  in  the  fall  may  injure  the  crops.  Some- 
times a  hard  frost  occurs  before  the  corn  is  ripe,  and 
serious  damage  to  the  crop  results.  In  sections  of  the 
country  where  the  growing  season  is  too  short  for 
the  suc^^sful  growing  of  a  crop,  much  work  is  being 
doneJffplant  breeding  to  secure  new  varieties  which 
wjiffriature  early  and  thus  be  safe  from  frost. 

Rainfall.  -  -  The  total  amount  of  rainfall  during  the 
year  is  of  far  less  importance  than  the  amount  and  fre- 
quency of  rain  during  the  growing  season.  In  the  corn 
belt  of  the  United  States  the  yield  of  corn  from  year 


16  THE   FARMER   AND   THE   WEATHER 


^  S   •  2 

umi , 

1 4 1  f  1 J   c 


THE  FARMER  AND  THE  WEATHER     17 

to  year  is  determined  more  by  the  rainfall  than  by 
anything  else.  A  long  dry  period  during  the  summer 
will  always  cause  a  sharp  decrease  in  corn  production. 

Sunshine.  —  A  growing  plant  needs  sunshine,  and 
the  longer  the  day  and  the  clearer  the  sky,  the  more 
rapid  will  be  the  growth  of  crops.  North  of  our 
country  the  growing  season  is  quite  short,  but  the 
days  are  longer,  and  the  longer  periods  of  sunlight 
cause  the  crops  to  ripen  earlier  than  in  more  southern 
regions  where  the  days  are  not  so  long.  Dry,  sunny 
days  are  of  especial  value  in  the  harvesting  of  hay. 
Corn  is  a  crop  which  requires  much  sunshine.  In 
warm  countries  which  are  very  cloudy,  corn  does  not 
thrive. 

Effects  of  winds.  -  -  The  wind  is  of  great  interest  to 
the  farmer.  Sometimes  crops  are  damaged  by  hot, 
dry  winds.  Occasionally  corn,  wheat,  and  oats  are 
blown  down  by  heavy  winds  and  the  crops  are  damaged. 
To  protect  the  house  and  barn  from  windstorms  in 
the  summer  and  cold  winds  in  the  winter,  the  farmer 
plants  a  shelter  belt  of  trees. 

Use  of  farm  buildings.  -  -  The  need  for  a  house  and 
other  farm  buildings  is  largely  due  to  the  weather. 
The  farmer  builds  a  house  for  shelter  from  the  weather 
and  builds  barns  for  his  live  stock,  and  granaries  for 
his  grain.  In  the  winter  a  large  part  of  the  food  of 
animals  is  used  as  fuel  to  keep  them  warm  instead  of 
being  used  to  make  flesh.  It  pays  to  protect  animals 
from  the  cold,  for  less  food  will  be  used  to  keep  up  the 


B.    AND    D.    AC.  —  2 


i8 


THE   FARMER    AND   THE   WEATHER 


heat  of  the  body  and  they  will  fatten  with  less  food  than 
if  left  out  in  the  wet  and  cold. 

The  Weather  Bureau.  —  The  farmer  is  greatly 
benefited  by  the  forecasts  of  the  Weather  Bureau. 
In  fruit-growing  regions,  particular  attention  is  given 
to  frost  predictions.  Very  often  a  fruit  crop,  worth 


SMUDGE  POTS  ARE  BURNED  IN  THE  ORCHARD  TO  PREVENT  FROST 

thousands  of  dollars,  is  saved  by  starting  fires  in  the 
orchards  to  prevent  the  frost.  Very  many  farm  opera- 
tions can  be  controlled  by  knowing  the  weather  which 
is  to  come  in  the  next  thirty-six  hours.  The  intelligent 
farmer  pays  close  attention  to  the  forecasts  of  the 
Weather  Bureau  and  gives  no  attention  to  the  quack 
forecasts  for  long  periods  of  time  which  are  so  often 
given  in  patent  medicine  almanacs. 


THE   FARMER   AND   THE   WEATHER  19 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  difference  between  weather  and  climate? 

2.  How  do  the  seasons  govern  the  farmer's  work  ? 

3.  What  is  the  growing  season  ? 

4.  What  is  the  average  length  of  the  growing  season  in  your 
locality  ? 

5.  What  crops  are  sometimes  damaged  by  late  frosts  in 
spring  ?    What  crops  are  sometimes  damaged  by  early  frosts  in 
autumn  ? 

6.  How  may  orchards  be  protected  from  frosts  ? 

7.  What  crops  are  sometimes  injured  by  a  long  drouth  in 
the  summer  ? 

8.  What  are  the  most  important  climatic  conditions  needed 
by  growing  crops  ? 


PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

i.  Keep  a  record  of  daily  weather  observations.  In  the  morn- 
ing and  evening  note  the  temperature,  direction  and  velocity  of 
the  wind,  the  condition  of  the  sky,  and  precipitation  if  any.  Use 
the  following  form  of  weather  record : 


DATE 

HOUR 

TEM- 
PER- 
ATURE 

DIRECTION 
OF  WIND 

VELOCITY 
OF  WIND 

SKY 

RAIN 

OR 

SNOW 

WEATHER  SINCE 
LAST  OBSERVATION 

Sept.  10 
Sept.  10 

8  A.M. 
4  P.M. 

55 
70 

N.W. 
S.W. 

Brisk 
Light 

Clear 
Cloud/ 



Frost  at  night 

2.  Study  the  daily  weather  map  and  weather  forecast  of  the 
Weather  Bureau,  which  you  may  find  in  a  daily  newspaper. 
Cut  out  the  weather  maps,  and  fasten  to  a  sheet  of  cardboard 
those  for  one  month.  To  make  the  dim  lines  stand  out  clearly, 
color  them  with  oil  crayons.  Use  red  to  color  the  isobars  around 


20  THE   FARMER   AND   THE   WEATHER 

a  Low,  and  blue  to  color  those  around  a  High.  Use  another 
color  for  the  isothermal  line  of  freezing,  and  still  another  for  the 
isothermal  line  of  zero. 

3.  Keep  a  set  of  notes  on  the  seasonal  changes  in  plant  and 
animal  life,  such  as  the  dates  of  bird  migrations,  blooming  of 
early  wild  flowers,  blooming  of  fruit  trees,  leafing  of  forest 
trees,  and  the  planting  and  harvesting  of  crops. 

REFERENCES 

Write  to  the  director  of  the  Weather  Bureau  section  in  which 
you  live  for  publications  on  the  climate  of  your  section.  Write 
also  to  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  in  your  state  for 
bulletins  on  the  climate  of  the  state. 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  104,  Notes  on  frost;  401,  Protection  of 
orchards  in  Pacific  Northwest  from  spring  frosts  by  means  of 
fires  and  smudges. 


LESSON  IV 
THE   SOIL 

How  soil  is  made.  —  By  the  action  of  air  and  water, 
and  heat  and  cold,  the  solid  rock  of  the  earth's  surface 
decays  and  breaks  up  into  fine  particles.  The  layer 
of  fine  mineral  particles  is  called  soil.  But  in  addition 
to  the  rock  particles,  soil  contains  water,  air,  minute 
living  forms,  and  decaying  plant  and  animal  matter. 
All  of  these  things  are  necessary  to  plant  growth. 

Water  in  the  soil.  —  When  soil  is  saturated,  all  the 
spaces  between  the  soil  grains  are  filled  with  water  and 
the  soil  contains  no  air.  Part  of  the  water  will  drain 
away  and  air  will  flow  in  to  take  its  place.  The  water 
which  drains  off  from  a  saturated  soil  is  called  free 
water.  The  water  remaining  in  the  soil  exists  as  thin 
sheets  or  films  around  the  soil  particles.  This  is  called 
film  water.  In  this  water  is  dissolved  the  food  for 
the  growing  plants. 

Air  in  the  soil.  -  -  The  roots  of  growing  plants  need 
air.  The  useful  bacteria  in  the  soil  also  use  air.  There- 
fore it  is  necessary  that  there  be  a  free  movement  of 
air  in  the  pores  of  the  soil.  Too  much  water  in  the 
soil  prevents  the  air  from  reaching  the  plant  roots, 
and  the  crops  do  not  thrive.  If  the  soil  remains  satu- 
rated too  long,  the  plants  die  for  lack  of  soil  air. 


ROOTS,  LEAVES,  AND  STEMS  OF  THE  FOREST  MAKE  HUMUS 


THE   SOIL  23 

Living  forms  in  the  soil.  -  -  The  living  forms  in  the  soil 
are  mainly  microscopic  plants  called  bacteria.  These 
soil  bacteria,  as  you  will  learn  in  the  next  chapter, 
add  much  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

Humus.  -  -  The  dead  organic  matter,  the  remains  of 
plants  and  animals,  is  called  humus. 

The  roots,  leaves,  and  stems  of  plants  furnish  much 
of  the  humus.  The  bodies  of  dead  earthworms  and 
insects  in  the  soil  also  add  to  the  total  amount  of 
humus. 

Soil  particles.  —  According  to  their  size,  we  divide 
the  soil  particles  into  three  classes;  clay,  silt,  and  sand. 
The  very  finest  particles  form  clay.  Larger  particles, 
but  still  quite  small,  form  silt.  Coarse  soil  grains, 
usually  particles  of  quartz  rock,  are  sand.  These 
grains  of  sand  are  large  enough  to  be  seen  with  the 
naked  eye. 

Kinds  of  soil.  —  Soils  made  up  mostly  of  clay  or  silt, 
or  clay  and  silt  together,  are  called  clay  soils.  Soils 
made  up  mostly  of  sand  are  called  sandy  soils.  Soils 
which  contain  large  proportions  of  clay  and  silt  and 
sand  are  called  loams.  If  the  amount  of  sand  is  greater 
than  the  amount  of  silt  and  clay,  we  have  a  sandy 
loam.  If  the  amount  of  silt  and  clay  is  greater  than 
the  amount  of  sand,  we  have  a  clay  loam. 

If  a  soil  contains  a  large  amount  of  humus,  it  is  called 
a  humus  soil.  The  soil  of  a  swamp  is  of  this  kind. 

Topsoil  and  subsoil.  -  -  The  layer  of  soil  which  is 
plowed  and  worked  is  called  the  topsoil.  The  part 


THE   SOIL 


underneath  is  the  subsoil.  The  topsoil  is  usually 
much  looser  than  the  subsoil,  and  darker  because  of 
the  humus  it  contains.  On  the  steep  bank  of  streams 

you  can  often  see 
clearly  the  differ- 
ence between  the 
dark  topsoil  and 
the  lighter-colored 
subsoil. 

Heavy  and  light. 
-  The  farmer  of- 
ten speaks  of  heavy 
soil  and  light  soil. 
A  heavy  soil  is  one 
through  which  it  is  hard  to  pull  the  plow.  A  tough 
clay  is  hard  to  plow  and  is  called  a  heavy  soil.  A  soil 
that  is  easy  to  work  is  called  a  light  soil.  Sandy  soils 
are  easy  to  plow  and  therefore  are  light  soils. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  things  constitute  soil  ? 

2.  Define  free  water,  film  or  capillary  water. 

3.  What  is  humus? 

4.  What  are  the  classes  of  soil  on  the  basis  of  the  size  of  the 
soil  particles  ? 

5.  How  does  the  topsoil  differ  from  the  subsoil  ? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  a  light  soil  ?     By  a  heavy  soil  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

i.    Bring  to  school  samples  of  several  kinds  of  soil  that  are 
found  in  the  neighborhood. 


THE   SOIL  25 

2.  Into  a  tall  fruit  jar  that  is  nearly  full  of  water,  place  a  hand- 
ful of  garden  loam.  Stir  thoroughly  for  a  minute  or  two,  and  let 
the  jar  stand  for  several  days.  After  the  stirring  has  ceased,  the 
sand  will  settle  to  the  bottom  in  a  very  short  time ;  the  silt  will 
settle  in  a  much  longer  time  and  form  a  distinct  layer  above  the 
sand;  the  clay  will  settle  so  slowly  that  it  will  take  several 
days  before  the  water  becomes  quite  clear.  At  the  end  of  the 
experiment  you  will  have  the  soil  divided  into  three  fairly 
distinct  layers. 

REFERENCES 

Soil  bulletins  of  the  Agricultural  College  and  of  the  Experiment 
Station  in  your  state.  Farmers'  Bulletins:  77,  Liming  of  soils; 
245,  Renovation  of  worn-out  soils;  257,  Soil  fertility;  266, 
Management  of  soil  to  conserve  moisture ;  406,  Soil  conserva- 
tion. 


LESSON  V 
FERTILITY  OF  THE   SOIL 

Fertile  soil.  —  The  chemical  composition  and  the 
physical  condition  of  the  soil  determine  its  fertility. 
In  order  to  be  fertile  a  soil  must  have  the  mineral  and 
organic  matter  which  gives  food  to  the  plants;  and 
it  must  also  be  in  such  a  condition  that  the  growing 
plants  can  secure  their  food. 

Plant  foods.  —  The  food  of  plants  consists  mainly 
of  carbon  dioxide,  water,  oxygen,  and  compounds  of 
nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium,  and  calcium.  Many 
other  substances  furnish  plant  food,  but  these  are  of 
greatest  importance.  Plants  get  carbon  dioxide  from 
the  air,  water  from  the  soil,  and  oxygen  from  the  air 
and  the  soil.  The  other  food  materials  come  from  the 
organic  and  mineral  matter  in  the  soil. 

Nitrogen  is  one  of  the  most  important  elements  in 
plant  food,  and  the  securing  of  the  needed  supply  of 
nitrogen  compounds  is  always  one  of  the  greatest 
problems  to  the  farmer.  Although  four  fifths  of  the 
air  is  nitrogen,  yet  plants  cannot  take  nitrogen  directly 
from  the  air.  They  must  obtain  it  from  the  nitrogen 
compounds  in  the  soil.  Salts,  called  nitrates,  are  the 
best  nitrogen-giving  foods  for  plants.  These  salts 
and  the  organic  matter  in  the  soil  furnish  nitrogen. 

26 


FERTILITY  OF  THE   SOIL  27 

Barnyard  manure  is  added  to  give  nitrogen  and  other 
elements  to  the  soil.  Before  the  nitrogen  in  the  organic 
matter  can  be  used  by  the  crops,  it  must  be  changed 
into  nitrates  by  the  bacteria  in  the  soil.  Thus  the  soil 
bacteria  are  the  direct  producers  of  nitrogen  plant  food. 


THE  PLANT  ON  THE  LEFT  WAS  GROWN  IN  POOR  SOIL,  THE  OTHER  IN  GOOD  SOIL 

The  legumes,  such  as  the  clovers,  peas,  beans,  and 
alfalfa,  in  addition  to  furnishing  valuable  crops  for  man, 
are  of  great  value  in  increasing  the  nitrogen  supply. 
On  the  roots  of  the  legumes  may  be  found  small  swell- 
ings or  nodules,  in  which  are  colonies  of  bacteria  which 
have  the  power  of  taking  the  nitrogen  from  the  air 


28  FERTILITY   OF   THE   SOIL 

and  changing  it  into  nitrogen  compounds  which  can 
be  used  by  the  legumes  themselves  and  the  succeeding 
crops. 

Phosphorus  and  potassium.  —  Crops  remove  such 
large  amounts  of  phosphorus  and  potassium  from 
soils  that  it  is  necessary  to  replace  these  elements  by 
the  use  of  fertilizers.  Barnyard  manure,  bone  meal, 
and  phosphate  rock  are  used  to  enrich  the  soil  with 
phosphorus.  Potassium  is  added  to  the  soil  in  manure, 
potash,  and  wood  ashes. 

If  the  soil  is  poor  in  calcium,  lime,  a  compound  of 
calcium,  is  added.  Lime  is  more  often  added  for  other 
reasons,  however,  than  that  of  supplying  calcium. 

The  other  elements  of  plant  foods  are  used  in  such 
small  amounts  that  usually  the  supply  in  the  soil  is 
ample ;  and  it  is  not  often  necessary  to  add  them  by 
use  of  fertilizers. 

Condition  of  the  soil.  —  The  proper  physical  condi- 
tion of  the  soil  enables  the  crops  to  obtain  the  food 
supply  present  in  the  soil.  When  we  use  such  words 
as  mellow,  friable,  fine,  loose,  porous,  hard,  cloddy, 
compact,  sour,  and  sweet,  we  are  speaking  of  the 
physical  condition  of  the  soil.  Fineness  or  good  tex- 
ture is  the  most  important  physical  property  of  a  soil, 
and  it  is  one  of  the  main  objects  of  tillage.  If  the 
soil  is  cloddy,  the  plant  food  is  locked  up  inside  the 
clods,  and  is  beyond  the  reach  of  the  roots.  More 
soil  water  and  soil  air  are  held  in  a  soil  of  fine  texture 
than  in  one  of  coarse  texture. 


FERTILITY   OF   THE    SOIL  29 

Effect  of  humus.  —  Humus  is  valuable  in  securing 
the  proper  texture  of  soil.  A  gravelly  soil  or  sandy 
soil  may  be  too  loose  for  the  plants  to  get  a  proper  hold 
and  enough  water.  Humus  will  improve  it  by  binding 
the  coarse  particles  together  and  by  increasing  the 
capacity  for  film  water.  A  heavy  clay  soil  may  be 
too  compact  to  allow  proper  drainage  of  surplus  water 
and  free  access  of  air.  Such  a  soil  can  be  made  lighter 
by  the  addition  of  humus.  Thus,  humus  lessens  the 
difference  between  a  heavy  clay  soil  and  a  light  sandy 
soil  by  making  them  more  loamy.  The  great  value  of 
barnyard  manure  is  that  it  not  only  furnishes  substances 
which  are  plant  foods,  but  it  also  adds  humus  to  im- 
prove the  soil  texture. 

Effect  of  sand.  —  Sometimes  sand  is  mixed  with  a 
tough,  heavy  clay  to  make  it  easier  to  till  and  to  give 
greater  circulation  of  the  soil  water  and  soil  air. 

Effect  of  lime.  —  Lime  is  sometimes  put  in  a  heavy 
clay  soil  to  make  it  more  porous  and  easier  to  work. 
At  times  a  soil  becomes  sour  by  the  presence  of  an  acid, 
and  its  fertility  is  reduced.  The  application  of  lime  will 
destroy  the  acid  and  thus  sweeten  the  soil.  Lime  is 
more  often  applied  for  this  than  for  any  other  purpose. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  two  things  that  determine  the  fertility  of 
the  soil? 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  most  important  elements  that  plants 
require  from  the  soil  ? 


30  FERTILITY   OF   THE   SOIL 

3.  How  do  plants  obtain  nitrogen? 

4.  How  may  nitrogen  be  increased  in  the  soil  ? 

5.  By  what  methods  do  farmers  keep  up  the  fertility  of  the 
soil? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  "texture  of  the  soil" ? 

7.  What  condition  of  soil  requires  an  application  of  lime  ? 

8.  How  does  humus  improve  the  soil  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  Dig  up  the  roots  of  clover  or  alfalfa  and  find  the  nodules  in 
which  are  the  colonies  of  bacteria  that  take  nitrogen  from  the  air 
and  build  it  into  nitrogenous  substances  that  the  plants  can  use. 

2.  Make  a  ball  of  puddled  clay  and  leave  it  to  dry.     Note  the 
hard  clod  that  forms.     Make  a  similar  ball  of  clay  mixed  with 
a  little  sand  and  one  of  clay  mixed  with  a  little  lime.     Do  the 
dried  balls  form  hard  clods?     How  does  lime  or  sand  affect 
the  texture  of  a  clay  soil  ? 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins:    44,  Commercial  fertilizers,  composition 
and  use ;   192,  Barnyard  manure. 


LESSON  VI 
MOISTURE  IN  THE   SOIL 

The  water  in  the  soil  is  one  of  the  most  important 
agents  of  fertility.  No  plants  can  grow  without  mois- 
ture, and  it  is  only  through  the  water  that  plant  foods 
find  their  way  from  the  soil  into  the  plant.  The  water 
in  the  soil  may  be  in  any  or  all  of  the  following  three 
conditions  :  vapor,  film  moisture,  and  free  water. 

Vapor.  -  -  The  soil  may  be  so  dry  that  it  has  little 
moisture  except  that  which  is  in  the  form  of  water  vapor 
or  gas.  The  soil  absorbs  much  water  vapor,  but  in  this 
state  the  water  is  probably  not  used  to  any  great  extent 
by  plants. 

Film  moisture.  —  Much  water  is  held  in  the  soil  in 
the  form  of  film  moisture.  By  film  moisture  is  meant 
the  water  which  clings  around  the  soil  particles  and 
travels  from  one  soil  particle  to  another,  if  they  are 
close  enough  together.  In  this  way,  the  moisture  is 
always  moving  from  a  moist  to  a  drier  soil.  In  a  soil  of 
fine  texture,  this  film  moisture  will  rise  many  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  ground  water.  It  is  this  film 
moisture  that  is  of  so  much  use  to  the  plant  and  value 
to  the  farmer,  because  it  supplies  the  plant  with  its 
water  and  its  food. 

31 


32  MOISTURE   IN   THE   SOIL 

Free  water.  —  Water  occurs  in  the  soil  as  free  water. 
The  water  in  a  well,  or  which  stands  in  a  post  hole 
when  dug  in  a  wet  time,  comes  from  the  free  water  in 
the  soil.  The  free  water  of  the  soil  finds  its  way  out 
by  drainage,  appearing  as  springs  where  it  comes  to 
the  surface.  For  most  crops  free  water  should  not 
come  closer  to  the  surface  of  the  soil  than  from  two 
to  four  feet. 

Water  brings  food  to  plants.  —  Water  is  the  carrier 
by  which  plants  obtain  their  food  from  the  soil.  A 
constant  current  is  slowly  passing  upward  from  the 
roots  and  evaporating  from  the  leaves  into  the  air. 
Thus  a  large  amount  of  soil  moisture  passes  from  the 
ground  into  the  growing  plants  and  then  into  the  air 
as  water  vapor.  One  half  of  all  the  moisture  that  falls 
on  the  land  in  the  form  of  rain  or  snow  soon  evaporates 
directly  from  the  soil.  As  the  moisture  evaporates 
from  the  surface  of  the  soil,  more  soil  water  moves 
up  from  below,  and  thus  much  moisture  is  lost  which 
might  be  used  by  the  growing  crop.  One  of  the  objects 
of  tillage,  by  making  a  mulch  of  loose  soil,  is  to  prevent 
evaporation  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  thus  save 
the  soil  moisture  for  the  crop. 

Sources  of  water.  —  In  humid  regions,  the  moisture 
is  stored  in  the  soil  by  the  falling  of  rain  or  snow.  In 
the  farm  lands  of  dry  regions,  water  is  applied  to  the 
soil  by  irrigation.  Snow  or  rain  falls  upon  the  moun- 
tains in  the  arid  regions,  and  the  water  is  carried  by 
streams  from  the  mountain  slopes  through  the  more 


MOISTURE   IN   THE   SOIL 


33 


level  desert  plains.  By  dams  across  the  streams,  the 
water  is  turned  into  canals  and  then  spread  over  the 
land  that  is  to  be  irrigated. 

The  preparation  of  the  soil    so  it  will  absorb  the 
greatest    amount    of   moisture    from    rain    and    snow 


MOUNTAIN  STREAM 

and  the  proper  spreading  of  the  water  in  the  arid  or 
semiarid  belt  by  irrigation  are  important  parts  of 
farm  practice. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  In  what  three  conditions  does  water  exist  in  the  soil  ? 

2.  In  which  condition  is  the  water  most  useful  to  growing 
plants  ? 

3.  In  what  ways  does  the  soil  lose  moisture? 

B.    AND   D.    AG.  —  3 


34 


MOISTURE   IN  THE   SOIL 


4.  What  are  the  sources  of  soil  water  ? 

5.  What  is  irrigation  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  Place  two  or  three  cubes  of  sugar,  one  upon  the  other,  in  a 
saucer,  and  pour  in  a  small  quantity  of  red  ink.     This  shows  the 
upward  movement  of  film  moisture  by  the  force  of  capillarity. 
Tie  pieces  of  cloth  over  the  ends  of  three  tall  lamp  chimneys. 
Place  these  in  a  pan  or  a  large  flat  dish.     Fill  one  lamp  chim- 
ney   with    dry  sand,,  another  with  dry  loam,  and   the   other 
with   dry  clay.     Now  pour  water  into  the  pan  or  dish  to  a 
depth  of  about  an  inch.     In  which  soil  does  the  moisture  move 
upward  most  rapidly  ? 

2.  Repeat  the  above  exercise,  using  chimneys  of  the  same  size, 
and  equal  volumes  of  sand,  loam,  and  clay.     Place  each  chimney 
in  a  separate  saucer  or  other  small  dish.     Measure  the  water 
added  to  each  to  determine  which  soil  can  hold  the  largest 
amount  of  film  moisture.     Be  sure  that  the  depth  of  water 
remaining  in  the  bottom  of  each  saucer  is  the  same  when  you 
compare  the  amounts  of  water  absorbed  by  the  three  soils. 

In  these  two  exercises  it  is  necessary  to  place  a  small  wedge,  a 
bit  of  cardboard  or  match,  under  each  lamp  chimney  so  that  it 
may  not  rest  so  close  to  the  bottom  of  the  dish  as  to  prevent  the 
entrance  of  water. 

If  long  glass  tubes  could  be  used  instead  of  lamp  chimneys, 
it  would  be  possible  to  show  that  film  water  will  rise  higher  in  a 
soil  of  fine  texture  than  in  one  of  coarse  texture. 


LESSON  VII 
TILLING  THE   SOIL 

Purpose  of  tilling  the  soil.  -  -  The  soil  is  tilled  for 
the  purpose  of  making  it  more  suitable  for  the  growth 
of  useful  plants.  There  are  but  few  crops  which  will 
grow  in  untilled  soil.  In  general,  good  soils  need 
only  to  be  well  tilled  in  order  to  produce  large  crops. 

Plowing.  —  The  ground  is  plowed  in  order  to  loosen 
the  soil  and  to  turn  under  the  layer  of  vegetable  matter 
lying  on  the  surface.  By  harrowing,  the  soil  is  made 
loose  and  fine  in  texture,  and  the  humus  thoroughly 
pulverized  and  mixed  with  the  soil. 

Porous  soil.  —  It  is  necessary  to  loosen  the  soil  in 
order  to  plant  the  seeds  which  must  be  covered,  and 
for  the  growing  plants  to  take  root.  A  loose  porous 
soil  will  absorb  more  rain  than  a  compact  soil.  In  a 
loose  soil  the  air  can  readily  reach  the  plant  roots  and 
the  useful  soil  bacteria.  The  finer  the  texture  of  the 
soil,  the  more  film  water  it  can  hold,  and  the  more 
plant  food  which  the  film  water  can  dissolve  from  the 
soil  particles. 

Soil  mulch.  —  In  dry  regions  the  soil  is  tilled  in 
order  to  prevent  loss  of  soil  moisture  by  evaporation. 
By  making  a  layer  of  fine,  loose  soil  on  the  surface, 
the  upward  capillary  movement  of  film  water  is  checked, 

35 


36  TILLING  THE   SOIL 

and  thus  it  is  retained  in  the  ground.  This  layer  of 
pulverized  soil  is  called  a  soil  mulch.  In  other  parts 
of  the  country  where  the  summers  may  be  dry,  a  soil 
mulch  is  formed  by  shallow  cultivation  to  save  the 


DEEP  PLOWING 


water  for  the  roots  of  the  crops.  Although  there  may 
be  no  need  of  cultivation  to  kill  the  weeds,  yet  the 
cultivated  crops  are  often  riven  a  shallow  plowing 
after  each  summer  rain  to^>rm  the  mulch  and  thus 
check  evaporation. 


TILLING  THE   SOIL 


37 


MOLDBOARD 
SHARE 

POINT 


General  Purpose  Plow 
SOME  IMPLEMENTS  FOR  WORKING  THE  SOIL 


38  TILLING  THE   SOIL 

Implements.  -  -  The  implements  used  to  work  the 
soil  are  the  spade,  hoe,  plow,  harrow,  roller,  clod 
crusher  or  planker,  and  leveler.  Tilling  requires  more 
work  than  other  farm  operations,  and  it  is  usually 
done  by  hitching  horses  or  mules,  or  engines,  to  the 
tilling  machinery. 

Wet  soil.  —  Some  heavy  soils  of  fine  texture,  like 
clay,  may  be  spoiled  if  they  are  tilled  when  too  wet. 
This  puddles  the  soil  so  that  air  and  water  cannot  pass 
through  it.  A  soil  that  is  apt  to  puddle  can  be  im- 
proved by  adding  lime,  sand,  or  humus. 

Cultivation.  —  The  tilling  of  soil  around  plants  is 
called  cultivation.  Some  crops  are  sown  so  close 
together  that  they  are  allowed  to  grow  without  cul- 
tivation. Other  crops  are  drilled  in  rows  or  planted 
in  hills  so  that  the  soil  between  the  rows  or  around  the 

hills  can  be  cul- 
tivated. 

Cultivators. 
In  earlier  times 
cultivation  of  the 
soil  was  practi- 
cally all  done  with 
a  hoe.  The  labor 

CULTIVATOR  , 

was    severe,    and 

only  a  small  patch  of  land  could  be  hoed  by  one  man. 
Now  crops  are  cultivated  with  machines,  called  cul- 
tivators, which  are  drawn  by  horses.  A  cultivator 
may  stir  the  soil  along  a  row  or  between  several  rows 


TILLING   THE   SOIL  39 

at  a  time.  The  hand  hoe  is  now  little  used  except 
in  gardening,  or  to  thin  the  plants  where  they  are  too 
thick  in  the  row,  or  to  kill  the  few  weeds  that  may  be 
left  by  the  cultivator. 

Cultivation  is  so  valuable  to  all  plants  that  we  are 
beginning  to  cultivate  crops  like  hay  and  small  grains. 
This  is  done  with  harrows  or  with  machines  called 
horse  weeders  that  scratch  the  ground  without  in- 
juring the  plants. 

Tillage  or  cultivation  of  the  soil  makes  the  food 
materials  in  the  soil  more  available  to  the  plants, 
saves  moisture,  destroys  weeds,  and  trains  the  plant 
roots  to  go  deep  into  the  soil. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  tillage? 

2.  What  results  are  obtained  by  tillage  ? 

3.  What  are  the  advantages  of  having  the  soil  loose  and  in 
fine  texture  ? 

4.  What  is  a  soil  mulch  ?     How  is  it  obtained  ? 

5.  Under  what  climatic  conditions  is  a  soil  mulch  of  especial 
value  to  crops? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  If  the  pupils  live  in  town,  a  visit  to  an  implement  store 
should  be  made  in  order  to  study  plows  and  cultivators. 

2.  Fill  two  large  metal  cans  or  pails  with  moist  soil.     Compact 
the  soil  by  jarring  the  sides  of  the  vessels.     Weigh  each,  and 
place  them  in  a  dry  place  for  a  week.     Do  not  disturb  the  soil 
of  one,  but  make  a  soil  mulch  on  the  other  by  stirring  each  day 
the  soil  to  a  depth  of  two  inches.     Weigh  each  at  the  end  of  a 
week.     Which  has  lost  the  greater  amount  of  moisture  ? 


LESSON  VIII 
THE  PLOW  AND   PLOWING 

Plows  were  probably  the  earliest  farm  implements 
used  by  civilized  man.  These  plows  were  made  out 
of  crooked  limbs  of  trees.  At  first  they  were  drawn 
or  pushed  through  the  soil  by  men.  Afterward  they 
were  drawn  by  oxen  or  horses.  Now  plows  are  made 
of  steel  and  are  drawn  by  horses,  or  mules,  or  steam 
engines,  or  gasoline  tractors. 

Plowing. -- The  mark  made  by  the  plow,  as  it  is 
pulled  along  through  the  soil,  is  called  a  furrow,  and  the 
part  cut  loose  by  the  plow  and  turned  over,  is  the  furrow 
slice.  When  sod  land  is  plowed,  the  furrow  slice  is 
turned  upside  down,  covering  the  vegetable  matter 
as  deeply  as  the  ground  is  plowed.  Good  plowing 
twists  and  breaks  and  crushes  the  soil,  leaving  it  rough 
and  open  to  the  air,  so  other  tools,  which  are  used 
afterwards  to  smooth  and  fine  the  surface,  can  do  the 
best  work.  Plowing,  then,  kills  the  plants  which  may 
be  growing  on  the  soil,  buries  the  vegetation,  and  mixes 
it  with  the  soil,  breaks  and  pulverizes  the  soil  particles, 
loosens  the  soil  and  lets  the  air  and  sunshine  and  water 
get  into  it  and  act  upon  it.  Plowing  helps  to  dry  out 
wet  soil  and  aids  the  movement  of  water  in  the  soil. 

40 


THE   PLOW   AND    PLOWING 


How  deep  to  plow.  —  Plows  are  not  made  to  go  very 
deep  into  the  soil.  Some  sod  lands  are  plowed  less 
than  three  inches  deep,  and  rarely  does  the  deepest 


STEAM  PLOW  AT  WORK 

plowing  extend  more  than  ten  or  twelve  inches  below 
the  surface.  Usually,  farmers  run  their  plows  six  or 
seven  inches  deep. 

When  to  plow.  -  -  The  time  the  farmer  should  plow 
his  land  depends  on  the  kind  and  condition  of  the  soil, 


42  THE   PLOW  AND   PLOWING 

and  the  kind  of  crops  to  be  grown.  Clay  land,  plowed 
in  the  fall,  is  better  for  wheat  to  be  planted  in  the 
spring,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  spring-plowed  land 
seems  to  produce  better  crops  of  corn  or  potatoes. 
Some  soils  may  be  spoiled  if  plowed  when  too  wet,  and  in 
some  instances  a  poor  crop  may  be  produced  if  too 
much  of  the  subsoil  is  turned  out  on  top  of  the  land. 

Kind  of  plows.  —  Many  men  are  working  to  improve 
the  plow.  There  are  two  general  kinds  of  plows, 
called  moldboard  plows  and  disk  plows.  Different 
kinds  of  plows  are  used  for  different  kinds  of  land. 
They  vary  from  heavy,  wood  plows  to  the  light  sod 
breaker  with  rods  instead  of  moldboard,  and  from  the 
simple  disk  plow  to  the  heavy,  deep  tilling  machine. 
Inventors  are  giving  attention  to  rotary  plows. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  results  are  obtained  by  plowing? 

2.  In  your  locality  to  what  depth  is  the  land  plowed  for  each 
of  the  leading  crops? 

3.  What  is  the  effect  of  plowing  when  the  soil  is  too  wet  ? 

4.  Under  what  conditions  is  it  well  to  plow  the  ground  in  the 
fall  for  crops  that  are  planted  in  the  spring  ? 


LESSON  IX 
THE  PLANT  AND   THE   SOIL 

Roots  are  the  parts  of  plants  which  grow  in  the  soil. 
Just  as  stems  grow  upward  toward  the  light,  so  the 
roots  grow  downward  toward  the  moisture  containing 
the  food  supply  in  the  soil.  Some  plants  like  the 
common  potato  have  underground  stems ;  and  a 
few  plants  like  the  peanut  bear  the  fruit  in  the  soil. 

Work  of  roots.  -  -  The  roots  of  plants  serve  two  main 
purposes :  (i)  they  absorb  the  moisture  with  the 
plant  food  dissolved  in  it ;  and  (2)  they  anchor  the 
plants  to  the  soil  and  thus  hold  them  in  place.  In 
many  plants  the  roots  serve  as  organs  in  which  to  store 
surplus  food.  These  are  of  much  importance  to  the 
farmer.  Examples  of  such  plants  are  sugar  beets, 
cassava,  sweet  potatoes,  turnips,  carrots,  and  parsnips. 

Kinds  of  roots.  —  Some  plants  have  one  main  tap- 
root growing  straight  down  into  the  soil,  the  smaller 
roots  coming  out  from  this  main  root.  Beets,  clover, 
and  alfalfa  are  some  of  the  crop  plants  with  taproots. 
In  other  plants  the  roots  branch  near  the  surface  of 
the  soil,  as  in  many  grasses. 

How  deep  roots  grow.  -  -  The  depth  to  which  roots 
grow  in  the  soil  depends  upon  the  kind  of  plants  and 
the  condition  of  the  soil.  Buffalo  grass  in  the  West, 

43 


44 


THE   PLANT  AND   THE   SOIL 


which  grows  only  three  or  four  inches  high,  is  known 
to  send  its  roots  into  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  seven  feet. 
Alfalfa  will  send  its  taproot  twenty  feet  or  more  into 
the  soil  unless  prevented  by  layers  of  hard  soil,  rock, 

or  water.  In  the  des- 
ert, where  the  ground 
water  is  very  far  below 
the  surface,  and  where 
the  slight  rainfall  mois- 
tens the  ground  to  the 
depth  of  only  a  few 
inches,  the  roots  of 
desert  plants  grow  only 
in  this  shallow  layer 
of  soil. 

Kinds     of      soil.  - 
Plants  differ  greatly  as 
to  the  kind  of  soil  in 


CORN  ROOT  AT  LEFT 
PLANTED  IN  DEEP- 
PLOWED  SOIL.  PLANT 
AT  RIGHT  PLANTED 
IN  ORDINARY-PLOWED 
SOIL 


which  they  grow  well. 

Rye  will  find  plant  food  and  grow  on  a  soil  that  is  too 
poor  for  wheat.  Clay  soils  are  well  adapted  to  wheat 
and  grass ;  while  corn  grows  best  in  rich,  dark  loams. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  most  important  functions  of  roots  ? 

2.  What  plants  are  called  root  crops? 

3.  What  plants  have  long  tap  roots  ? 

4.  What   conditions   determine   the   depth   to   which   roots 
penetrate    the   ground  ? 


THE   PLANT  AND    THE   SOIL  45 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  Lay  a  moistened  piece  of  cloth  or  blotter  upon  a  plate  and 
place  several  seeds  of  radish  or  some  other  plant.     Cover  with 
another  plate.     In  a  few  days  look  for  the  delicate  root  hairs  on 
the  roots  of  the  germinating  plants.     All  the  food  materials 
that  plants  take  from  the  soil  are  absorbed  by  the  root  hairs. 

2.  Place  a  few  grains  of  corn  on  a  marble  slab,  and  cover  them 
with  soil  to  a  depth  of  one  or  two  inches.     After  two  weeks  of 
growth  remove  the  plants,  and  wash  the  marble  to  see  how  the 
roots  have  dissolved  a  little  of  the  marble  by  the  action  of 
carbon  dioxide  which  is  excreted  from  the  roots. 

REFERENCE 

Farmers'  Bulletins:    408,  School  exercises  in  plant  produc- 
tion. 


LESSON  X 


THE   SEED   BED 

Making  the  seed  bed.  —  After  the  land  has  been 
plowed,  the  next  tillage  operations  are  carried  on  to 
form  the  seed  bed,  which  is  the  prepared  soil  in  which 
the  seeds  are  planted. 

Much  of  the  success  of  any  farmer  depends  on  his 
ability  to  make  a  seed  bed  suitable  to  the  kind  of  crop 
he  wishes  to  produce.  Usually  the  first  thing  to  do 
after  plowing  is  to  harrow  the  soil ;  and  this  harrowing 
should  be  done  at  the  time  the  plowing  is  done,  or  at 
least  the  same  day.  There  are  many  kinds  of  harrows ; 

all  of  them  are  imple- 
ments to  scratch  and 
break  up  the  soil  into 
fine  particles. 

Roller  and  harrow.— 
If  a  stiff  sod  has  been 
turned  over  with  the 
plow,  and  the  weather 
is  dry,  a  heavy  roller 

may  be  run  over  the  land  to  flatten  the  furrow  slices, 
and  pack  them  down  so  that  the  plants  turned  under 
will  keep  moist  and  decay  more  readily.  If  the  top 
soil  is  dry,  a  roller  is  often  used  to  pack  the  soil 
particles  closer  together  so  that  the  film  water  from 

46 


ROLLER 


THE   SEED   BED  47 

below  can  more  readily  move  up  into  the  seed  bed.  But 
since  more  soil  moisture  can  thus  reach  the  surface 
and  then  evaporate,  the  roller  should  be  followed  by 
the  harrow  to  form  a  shallow  mulch.  If  the  weather 
has  been  wet  and  cold,  and  there  is  much  moisture  in 
the  plowed  soil,  the  roller  will  pack  it  down,  and  cause 
it  to  lose  some  of  its  moisture  by  evaporation.  Some- 


HARROW 

times  rolling  the  land  helps  the  soil  to  warm  up  earlier 
in  the  spring. 

Special  seed  beds.  --  Tobacco  and  some  other  plants 
have  such  tiny  seeds  it  is  difficult  to  make  a  proper 
seed  bed  in  the  field,  so  they  are  started  in  special 
seed  beds;  and  the  plants  are  afterward  moved  to 
the  field.  Tomatoes,  cabbage,  and  celery  require  a 
long  season  in  which  to  grow,  and  the  seeds  are  first 
started  in  a  hotbed  or  in  a  greenhouse.  A  hotbed 
is  a  seed  bed  having  some  arrangement  for  warming  the 
soil  from  underneath,  so  the  plants  may  be  started 


48  THE    SEED    BED 

earlier  in  the  spring  than  it  would  be  safe  to  plant 
them  in  the  open  soil. 

Make  a  good  seed  bed.  —  Much  time,  labor,  and 
seed  are  lost  by  planting  seeds  on  poorly  prepared 
land.  The  best  yield  of  a  crop  depends  on  the  most 
perfect  stand  of  plants  in  the  soil.  If  the  planted  seeds 
do  not  grow,  the  farmer  has  lost  not  only  his  seed, 
but  all  the  time  and  labor  spent  in  preparing  the  soil, 
and  he  may  lose  the  use  of  the  land  for  the  whole  year. 

Small  seeds,  such  as  wheat,  clover,  or  alfalfa,  usually 
grow  better  in  a  well  settled  and  compact  soil ;  while 
corn,  potatoes,  and  peanuts  do  better  in  a  loose  seed 
bed. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  a  seed  bed  ? 

2.  What  are  the  conditions  that  make  a  good  seed  bed  ? 

3.  In  your  locality  how  is  the  seed  bed  prepared  for  wheat? 
How  is  it  prepared  for  corn  ? 

4.  How  is  a  hotbed  made  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  Fill  two  tin  cans  with  the  same  kind  of  soil.     Drive  several 
small  holes  in  the  bottom  of  one  can  and  plant  seeds  to  the 
same   depth   in  each.     Add  water  to  each  can  until  the  soil 
is  saturated.     Leave  for  several  days.     What  is  the  effect  of 
saturated  soil  upon  seed  germination?     What  necessary  thing 
is  excluded  by  the  free  water  in  the  saturated  soil  ? 

2.  Put  clay  soil  into  two  flower  pots  and  plant  seeds  of  the 
same  kind.     To  one  pot  add  much  water  and  thoroughly  puddle 
the  clay  around  the  seeds.     Moisten  the  soil  in  the  other  pot 
and  keep  it  loose  and  mellow.     What  difference  in  plant  growth 
do  you  observe  ? 


LESSON  XI 


SEEDS 

Contents  of  a  seed.  —  Most  farm  plants  are  grown 
from  seeds.  A  seed  contains  a  tiny  plant,  called  the 
germ  or  embryo,  and  a  supply  of  food  to  nourish  the 
little  plant  until  it  can  send  its  roots  into  the  soil  and 
gather  its  own  food.  The  seed  is  covered  with  a 
tough,  hard  coat  to  protect  it  from  injury.  Notice 
the  skin  of  a  bean  and  the  shell  of  a  squash  or  acorn. 
Sometimes  the  outer  cover  of  a  seed  is  thick  and  very 
hard,  like  that  of  the  walnut 
or  hickory  nut. 

Parts  of  a  seed.  —  If  you 
soak  a  bean  for  several  hours, 
and  then  break  the  seed  coat, 
you  can  readily  see  the  main 
parts  pf  the  germ  or  embryo. 
Between  the  two  halves  of 
the  bean  is  a  little  sproutlike 
body  which  is  called  the  axis 
of  the  embryo.  When  the 
seed  sprouts,  one  end  of  the  axis  grows  downward  and 
becomes  a  root,  while  the  other  end  grows  upward 
and  develops  into  stem  and  leaves.  At  the  end  which 


GERMINATING  BEAN 


B.    AND   D.    AG.  — 4 


49 


SEEDS 


grows  upward  you  will  see  a  little  bud  made  up  of 
several  tiny  leaves.  The  two  halves  of  the  bean  are 
the  first  leaves  of  the  embryo  and  are  so  large  because 
the  reserve  food  supply  is  stored  in  them.  These 
seed  leaves  are  called  cotyledons. 

A  grain  of  corn  or  wheat  has  one  small  cotyledon, 
and  the  food  supply  is  not  stored  within  the  germ 

itself,  but  lies  outside.  You 
can  easily  remove  the  small 
germ  of  a  grain  of  corn  from 
the  harder  part  of  the  seed 
which  is  the  reserve  food 
supply. 

Good  seeds.  —  Good  crops 
can  be  grown  only  from  good 
seeds.  As  a  rule,  plump, 
heavy  grains  are  good  seed. 
The  seeds  of  our  crops  keep 

their  vitality  for  only  a  very  few  years,  most  of  them 
only  two  years ;  and  it  is  very  important  that  the  seed 
is  not  too  old.  Seeds  keep  best  in  a  dry,  airy,  cool 
place. 

Germination.  —  When  seeds  are  placed  in  the  ground, 
the  warmth,  moisture,  and  air  of  the  soil  cause  them  to 
germinate.  At  first,  the  plant  lives  upon  the  food 
supply  stored  in  the  seed,  but,  after  a  short  time,  the 
roots  take  in  food  material  from  the  soil. 

How  to  plant  seeds.  -  -  The  depth  to  which  seeds 
should  be  planted  depends  on  the  kind  and  size  of  the 


SEED  TESTER 


SEEDS  51 

seed  and  the  conditions  of  the  soil.  It  is  a  general 
rule  to  plant  seeds  only  as  deep  as  is  necessary  to 
keep  them  in  moist  soil.  Very  tiny  seeds  are  not 
covered  with  soil,  but  merely  pressed  into  the  soil 
and  kept  moist  by  frequent  rains.  Clover  is  usually 
sown  by  scattering  the  seed  over  the  surface  of  the 
ground. 

Quality  of  seeds.  —  In  raising  plants  for  seeds,  we 
wish  to  make  each  plant  produce  as  many  perfect  seeds 
as  possible.  Large  beans  produce  only  a  few  seeds  on 
a  plant,  while  the  tobacco  plant  or  a  poppy  may  pro- 
duce thousands  of  tiny  seeds.  In  many  farm  crops 
each  plant  usually  produces  several  hundred  seeds. 
The  number  and  quality  of  seeds  from  each  plant  de- 
pend largely  on  the  fertility  and  depth  of  the  soil. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  parts  of  a  seed  ? 

2.  How  does  a  grain  of  corn  differ  from  a  bean  ? 

3.  Of  what  use  to  the  germinating  plant  is  the  food  stored  in 
the  seed  ? 

4.  What  three  conditions  are  necessary  to  germination  ? 

5.  What   things   determine   the   depth   to   which   seeds  are 
planted  ? 

REFERENCE 

Farmers'  Bulletins :  428,  Testing  farm  seeds  in  the  home  and 
in  the  rural  school. 


LESSON  XII 

GROWING  PLANTS  BY   CUTTINGS,   SCIONS, 
AND   BUDS 

CAN  you  name  several  plants  which  are  not  usually 
grown  from  seeds  ?  What  crop  is  obtained  by  planting 
underground  stems  ?  Can  you  name  one  or  more  house 
plants  which  are  started  by  planting  in  the  soil  a  leaf 
or  branch  from  a  parent  plant?  Do  you  know  a  tree 


ROOTED  CUTTINGS 

which  can  be  grown  by  planting  twigs  in  the  moist 
earth  ? 

Cuttings.  —  With  many  crops  it  is  far  better  to 
use  cuttings  instead  of  seeds  to  obtain  the  new  plants. 
A  cutting  may  be  a  leaf,  or  a  piece  of  root  or  stem. 
If  a  leaf  of  a  begonia  or  rubber  plant  is  placed  in  moist 

52 


GROWING   PLANTS    BY   CUTTINGS,  ETC.        53 


'< 


soil,  it  will  develop  roots  and  grow  into  a  new  plant. 
The  crops  of  sugar  cane  are  grown  by  planting  the 
upper  sections  of  the  stem.  The  potato  crop  is  grown 
by  planting  the  tubers,  which  are  underground  stems. 
Hyacinths  and  tulips  are  also  started  from  underground 
stems.  Geraniums  are  grown  by  planting  the  green 
shoots  or  branches. 
In  growing  some 
plants  the  cuttings 
are  made  from 
twigs  or  small 
branches  of  mature 
or  ripened  wood. 
In  starting  willows 
and  cotton  woods, 
the  twigs  of  the 
previous  summer's 
growth  are  used. 
Grapes  and  cur- 
rants are  also  reproduced  by  cuttings  of  mature  wood. 
The  ends  of  black  raspberry  branches  are  bent  down 
to  the  ground  and  covered  with  soil.  Roots  then  form 
from  the  covered  branches,  and  these  rooted  branches 
are  cut  and  become  new  plants.  Strawberries  produce 
runners  which  take  root  at  many  places.  These  rooted 
parts  become  separate  plants. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  plants  which  send  up  new 
plants  from  the  roots.  If  the  plow  cuts  the  roots  of 
the  black  or  yellow  locust,  the  severed  roots  will  send 


STEPS  IN  TONGUE  GRAFTING 

a,  the  two  branches  to  be  joined;    6,    a  tongue  cut  in 
each;  c,  how  fitted  together;  d,  method  of  wrapping 


54        GROWING   PLANTS   BY   CUTTINGS,   ETC. 


up  a  number  of  young  trees.  The  blackberry  and 
the  red  raspberry  are  also  examples  of  plants  which 
reproduce  themselves  by  root  cuttings. 

Grafting  is  an- 
other method  of 
growing  plants.  A 
branch  of  mature 
or  ripened  wood 
with  one  or  more 
buds  attached, 
called  a  scion,  may 
be  cut  from  one 
tree  and  united 
with  the  root  or 
branch  of  another 
tree  called  the 
stock.  Many  of 
our  fruit  trees  are 
started  in  this 
manner.  For  ex- 
ample, in  growing 
apple  trees  the 
scions  from  a  tree 
bearing  desirable 
fruit  are  grafted 
to  the  stocks  of 

STEPS  IN  BUDDING  apple       s  e  e  d  1  i  n  g  S 
a,  twig  having  suitable  buds  to  use;    6,  method  of  cutting  ••   .    •,      -, 

off  the  bud;    c,  how  the  bark  is  cut;    d,  how  the  bark  WmOl    naVC    gTOWn 

is  opened;    e,  inserting  the  bud;   /,  the  bud  in  pkce;  £--.—.      Orvr»l<i     c£>orlc 

g,  the  bud  properly  wrapped  ITOm     applC     SCCQS. 


GROWING   PLANTS    BY   CUTTINGS,    ETC.        55 

If  the  trees  from  the  seeds  were  allowed  to  grow,  the 
apples  from  such  trees  would  be  of  poor  quality  and 
very  different  from  the  apples  in  which  the  seeds  were 
produced.  But  by  grafting  to  the  seedling  trees  a 
scion  from  the  tree  we  wish  to  propagate,  we  are  sure 
to  get  trees  which  will  bear  the  fruit  we  desire. 

Budding  is  another  form  of  grafting.  A  bud  may 
be  cut  out  of  a  plant  and  grafted  on  the  stem  of  another 
plant,  and  from  this  bud  will  come  branches  which 
will  bear  fruit  of  the  same  kind  as  that  of  the  plant 
from  which  the  bud  was  taken.  Peach  and  cherry 
trees  are  grown  in  this  way.  Some  nurseries  also  start 
apple  trees  by  budding. 

By  grafting  scions  or  buds  from  several  trees  on  the 
branches  of  one  tree,  we  can  get  several  varieties  of 
fruit  from  the  single  tree.  If  a  fruit  tree  bears  an  un- 
desirable variety  of  fruit,  we  can  change  the  fruit  by 
grafting  on  it  scions  or  buds  from  trees  of  desirable 
varieties. 


QUESTIONS 

1 .  What  is  a  cutting  ?    What  plants  are  propagated  by  cut- 
tings ? 

2.  Why  do  we  not  raise  apples  from  seedling  trees? 

3.  What  is  a  scion  ?     Explain  the  method  of  grafting  a  scion 
to  another  plant. 

4.  Explain  the  method  of  budding. 

5.  What  trees  are  propagated  by  grafting  or  budding  ? 


56       GROWING   PLANTS    BY   CUTTINGS,   ETC. 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  Cut  off  the  growing  tip  of  a  stem  or  branch  of  a  geranium. 
Plant  the  cutting  in  moist  earth,  and  after  several  days  note 
the  result. 

2.  Ask  a  fruit  grower  to  show  you  how  to  graft  a  scion  of  one 
tree  to  the  stock  of  another.     Learn  also  to  remove  a  bud  and 
attach  it  to  the  branch  of  another  tree. 

3.  Bend  a  long,  slender  branch  of  a  black  raspberry,  grapevine, 
or  rosebush  to  the  ground  and  cover  a  section  of  it  with  four 
inches  of  soil.     Leave  above  ground  several  inches  of  the  tip 
of  the  branch.     After  the  buried  section  takes  root,  the  new 
plant  may  be  severed  from  the  old  plant. 


LESSON  XIII 
TRANSPLANTING 

Planting  indoors.  —  Doubtless  you  have  seen  your 
father  or  mother  plant  seeds  in  a  box  of  earth,  keep 
it  in  a  warm  place,  and  then  when  the  plants  were  two 
or  three  inches  high,  remove  them  to  the  garden. 
The  removal  of  plants  from  their  place  of  early  growth 
to  a  new  soil  is  transplanting. 

Hotbeds.  —  Farm  plants  which  require  a  longer 
season  than  occurs  in  the  north  are  raised  by  planting 
the  seeds  indoors  or  in  hotbeds ;  and  then  setting  them 
out  when  the  danger  of  frost  is  over.  It  is  desirable 
to  have  vegetables  ready  for  market  as  early  as  possible, 
and  so  these  plants  are  started  indoors  long  before 
the  weather  outside  is  favorable  to  growth.  When 
favorable  growing 
conditions  exist, 
the  plants  are  then 
transplanted  in  the 
garden  or  field. 

HOTBED 

Plants       regularly 

raised  in  this  way  are  tomatoes,  cabbages,  cauliflowers, 
peppers,  egg  plants,  and  celery.  The  young  plants 
are  grown  two  or  three  months  indoors  before  they  are 
removed  to  the  open.  Sometimes  the  young  plants  are 


58  TRANSPLANTING 

lifted  when  they  get  the  second  pair  of  leaves  and 
planted  in  hotbeds,  and  from  there  they  may  be  trans- 
planted in  cold  frames,  where  they  are  allowed  more  cold 
air  and  light  to  harden  them  before  they  are  transplanted 
in  the  field.  Such  plants  may  be  transplanted  two  or 
three  times.  Celery  is  often  transplanted  twice. 

Advantages.  - 
By  growing  young 
plants  in  green- 
houses and  hotbeds 
we  can  secure  the 
most  favorable  con- 
ditions of  soil,  heat, 
moisture,  and  light. 
The  soil  and  air 
can  be  artificially 
warmed ;  by  screens 
the  proper  amount 
of  light  can  be  ob- 
tained ;  and  the 

COLD  FRAMES  i 

plants  can  be  wa- 
tered as  often  as  necessary.  To  protect  the  young 
plants  against  disease,  special  chemical  treatment  can 
be  given  to  the  soil  and  the  plants  themselves  to  pre- 
vent the  growth  of  dangerous  bacteria.  Loss  by  in- 
sects and  other  animals  can  be  controlled  or  entirely 
prevented  by  these  methods  of  early  cultivation. 

Nurseries.  —  In  the  case  of  tree  seedlings  a  great 
saving  of  ground  can  be  secured  by  having  the  young 


TRANSPLANTING  59 

trees  grow  for  one,  two,  or  three  years  in  closely  planted 
beds ;  and  then  transplanting  them  to  the  places 
where  they  are  to  grow.  In  the  nurseries  a  few  acres 
of  seedling  beds  will  grow  trees  enough  to  plant  hundreds 
of  acres ;  and  while  the  young  trees  are  in  the  nursery 
beds,  the  land  to  be  planted  in  trees  can  be  used  for 
other  crops. 

Methods.  -  -  Transplanting  is  nearly  always  done  by 
hand.  But  where  the  rows  are  far  enough  apart,  and 
the  plants  are  not  to  be  placed  close  together  in  the 
rows,  a  transplanting  machine  may  be  used. 

Plants  set  by  hand  are  usually  placed  in  holes  made 
by  a  dibble,  which  is  simply  a  round  stick  or  flat  piece 
of  iron,  used  in  one  hand,  while  the  plants  are  placed 
with  the  other  hand.  Then  the  soil  is  pressed  against 
the  roots  with  the  dibble. 

In  transplanting  it  is  always  necessary  to  keep 
the  roots  moist  and  to  protect  them  from  injury. 
Whenever  possible,  it  is  best  to  have  a  ball  of  soil 
surrounding  the  roots.  After  transplanting,  care  must 
be  taken  to  prevent  much  loss  of  moisture  by  transpira- 
tion, until  the  plant  can  get  water  from  the  soil  by  its 
root  system. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  plants  are  usually  started  in  hotbeds  or  in  houses 
and  then  transplanted  to  the  garden  or  field  ? 

2.  What  results  are  gained  by  transplanting  ? 

3.  How  does  a  cold  frame  differ  from  a  hotbed  ? 


60  TRANSPLANTING 

4.  Describe  some  method  of  transplanting  you  have  seen. 

5.  What  precautions  should  be  observed  in  transplanting  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  In  a  small  box  of  earth,  plant  tomato  seeds,  and  keep  it  in  a 
warm  room.     At  the  same  time  make  a  number  of  small  paper 
boxes,  fill  them  with  soil,  and  plant  two  or  three  tomato  seeds 
in  each.     After  the  plants  come  up  in  the  paper  boxes,  remove 
all  but  one  from  each  box.     At  the  proper  time,  plant  the  paper 
boxes  in  the  ground  without  disturbing  the  tomato  plant  in 
each.     Lift  from  the  wooden  box  an  equal  number  of  tomato 
plants  and   transplant   them  in   the   usual  way.     Watch   the 
results  of  each  method  of  planting. 

2.  A  simple  hotbed  is  easily  constructed  by  digging  a  hole  in 
the  ground  two  feet  deep  and  fitting  a  frame  of  boards  around  it 
that  will  support  a  window  sash.     Fresh  manure  from  grain-fed 
horses  should  be  placed  in  a  pile  and  water  sprinkled  over  it 
until  it  is  sufficiently  moist.     Then  it  should  be  forked  over 
once  or  twice  each  day  for  a  week  or  ten  days  to  keep  the  manure 
from  burning,  and  to  set  up  active  fermentation.     Place  this 
in  the  bed,  pounding  it  down  tight  to  a  depth  of  twelve  or 
fifteen  inches.     Cover  with  the  sash  and  leave  two  or  three 
days,  testing  the  temperature  with  a  thermometer,  when  the 
heat  has  gone  down  to  100  degrees,  cover  with  four  to  six  inches 
of  good  soil.     In  a  day  or  two  the  heat  will  be  reduced  to  70  de- 
grees or  80  degrees,  and  then  the  seeds  may  be  planted.     Venti- 
late carefully  by  opening  the  sash  during  the  warm  part  of  the 
day,  and  water  to  keep  the  soil  moist.     The  sash  should  slope  to 
the  south ;    and  if  the  sun  is  too  bright,  it  may  be  shaded  with 
a  cloth  or  by  whitewashing  the  glass. 


LESSON  XIV 
SUNLIGHT   AND   PLANT   GROWTH 

Root  hairs.  —  After  the  seed  has  sprouted  and  the 
roots  have  become  attached  to  the  soil,  the  new  plant 
must  gather  its  own  food  materials  and  change  them 
into  its  own  substance.  Plants  can  take  in  only  such 
mineral  matter  as  is  dissolved  in  the  soil  water.  Near 
the  ends  of  the  small  roots 
are  numerous  hairlike  cells 
called  root  hairs.  These 
root  hairs  absorb  the  film 
moisture  held  around  the 

soil  particles.  This  moisture,  containing  very  small 
amounts  of  the  minerals  of  which  the  soil  is  composed, 
becomes  the  sap  which  passes  through  the  root  and 
stem  to  the  leaves. 

Sunlight.  -  -  Through  the  action  of  sunlight  upon  the 
green  leaves,  the  materials  from  the  soil  and  air  are  built 
into  organic  substances  which  finally  become  the 
tissues  of  the  plant.  Water  and  carbon  are  combined 
together  in  the  leaves  to  form  sugar.  The  carbon 
comes  from  the  carbon  dioxide  which  the  plants  take 
from  the  air.  By  other  processes  the  sugar  is  combined 
with  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium,  sulphur,  and 

61 


62  SUNLIGHT  AND    PLANT   GROWTH 

other  elements  taken  from  the  soil,  and  is  finally  con- 
verted into  the  actual  substances  of  which  plants  are 
composed. 

Photosynthesis.  -  -  This  process  of  making  sugar 
which  takes  place  in  the  leaves  during  sunlight  is  called 
photosynthesis.  Carbon  dioxide,  which  is  taken  from 
the  air  into  the  leaves,  is  a  gas  composed  of  carbon  and 
oxygen ;  and  since  only  the  carbon  is  used  in  the 


COMMON  FORM  OF  MOLD  (magnified) 

process  of  photosynthesis,  the  oxygen  is  liberated  and 
expelled  into  the  air.  This  process  of  taking  in  carbon 
dioxide  and  throwing  off  the  oxygen  must  not  be  con- 
fused with  respiration  of  plants.  Respiration  goes  on 
in  plants  as  it  does  in  animals.  Both  plants  and  ani- 
mals in  breathing  take  in  oxygen  from  the  air  and 
expel  carbon  dioxide.  But  during  the  life  of  a  plant 
more  oxygen  is  given  off  to  the  air  by  photosynthesis 
than  is  taken  from  the  air  by  respiration. 


SUNLIGHT  AND    PLANT   GROWTH  63 

Growth  without  sunlight.  —  Some  plants,  like  bac- 
teria, molds,  and  mushrooms,  do  not  have  green  matter  ; 
and  these  plants  must  live  on  ready-made  food.  Bac- 
teria live  in  the  bodies  of  plants  and  animals,  and  their 
food  lies  all  about  them  ready  to  be  absorbed.  Molds 
live  on  plant  and  animal  substances,  such  as  bread, 
jelly,  or  decaying  flesh.  The  mushrooms  can  grow 
only  in  soil  rich  in  decaying  plant  and  animal  matter. 
Only  green  plants,  which  use  the  sunlight,  can  live 
on  the  mineral  matter  of  the  soil  and  the  carbon  taken 
from  the  carbon  dioxide  of  the  air. 

The  importance  of  sunlight  is  seen  in  the  fact  that 
the  dried  tissues  of  plants,  like  corn,  wheat,  or  trees,  are 
mostly  carbon  which  came  entirely  from  the  air  and 
was  made  part  of  the  plant  by  the  action  of  sunlight 
upon  the  green  leaves.  Only  the  ash  of  a  burned 
plant  is  the  material  which  came  from  the  mineral 
matter  of  the  soil. 

Thus,  in  addition  to  soil,  water,  and  air,  the  crops  must 
have  sunlight  in  order  to  grow  and  yield  harvests  for 
man. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  substance  is  manufactured  in  the  green  parts  of  a 
plant  under  the  influence  of  sunlight  ? 

2.  What  is  the  name  of  this  building-up  process  ?     How  does 
this  process  differ  from  respiration  of  plants  ? 

3.  What  kinds  of  plants  grow  without  sunlight  ?     How  do 
the  food  materials  of  such   plants  differ  from  those  of   green 
plants  ? 


LESSON  XV 
PLANTS   GROWN   ON   THE   FARM 

Useful  plants.  -  -  There  are  many  kinds  of  plants 
useful  to  man.  Most  of  the  important  crop  plants 
are  grown  for  food.  Others  are  grown  for  the  fibers 
which  they  yield.  Trees  are  raised  mainly  for  fuel 
and  lumber.  Some  plants  are  grown  for  drugs  and 
others  for  their  beauty. 

Grasses.  —  Most  of  the  general  farm  crop  plants 
belong  to  the  grass  family.  The  plants  of  this  family, 
like  wheat  and  oats,  whose  seeds  are  used  for  food, 
are  called  cereals.  The  seeds  or  grain  of  these  plants  are 
also  called  cereals.  All  of  the  cereals  are  grasses  except 
buckwheat,  which  belongs  to  another  family  of  flower- 
ing plants ;  but  buckwheat  is  called  a  cereal  because 
its  seeds  are  used  in  making  flour.  Many  of  the 
grasses  with  fine  leaves  and  stems  are  used  for  hay  and 
pasture  crops.  The  largest  grasses  used  as  crops  in 
America  are  corn,  sugar  cane,  and  sorghum.  The 
largest  grass  in  the  world  is  the  bamboo,  which  is 
used  for  many  purposes.  Many  important  plants 
belong  to  the  legume  or  pea  family.  Clover,  alfalfa, 
peas,  and  beans  are  well-known  legumes. 

Food  plants.  —  Corn,  wheat,  rice,  barley,  rye,  oats, 
and  buckwheat  are  crops  whose  seeds  or  grains  are 

64 


PLANTS    GROWN   ON   THE   FARM  65 

used  as  food  for  men  and  animals.  The  hay  and  pasture 
grasses  are  grown  to  supply  animals  with  food.  Some 
food  plants  are  raised  for  their  roots,  like  sweet  pota- 
toes, beets,  carrots,  parsnips,  radishes,  and  turnips. 
The  common  potato  and  the  Jerusalem  artichoke,  al- 


R.OOTS    USED    AS    FOOD 
i,  carrot;    2,  turnip;    3,  radish;   4,  sweet  potato;    5,   rutabaga;   6,  mangel-wurzel. 

though  underground  stems,  are  classed  as  root  crops. 
We  eat  the  leaves  of  lettuce,  cabbage,  celery,  and  spinach, 
the  leaf  stalks  of  rhubarb  and  chard,  and  the  stems  of 
asparagus.  Sugar  cane  is  grown  for  the  sugar  which  is 
obtained  from  the  juice  of  the  stem.  Tea  is  the  dried 
leaves  of  a  shrub  grown  in  distant  lands,  while  coffee 

B.    AND    D.    AG.  —  5 


66  PLANTS   GROWN   ON  THE   FARM 

is  the  berry  of  a  pulpy  fruit  which  grows  on  shrubs  in 
tropical  regions.  Many  plants  are  raised  for  their  fruit, 
like  berries,  apples,  peaches,  figs,  oranges,  and  dates. 

Fiber  plants.  -  -  The  most  important  fiber  plant  in 
the  world  is  cotton  ;  and  the  United  States  is  the  great; 
est  cotton-growing  country.  Other  fiber  plants  are 
flax  and  the  hemps.  While  the  mulberry  tree  does  not 
yield  fibers,  yet  its  leaves  are  the  food  of  the  silk- 


Cabbage  Lettuce  Spinach 

LEAVES  USED  AS  FOOD 

worms  that  spin  the  silk  fibers  which  are  woven  into 
silk  cloth. 

Useful  trees.  -  -  Trees  yield  wood  which  is  used  for 
fuel  and  lumber.  Some  also  furnish  nuts  which  are 
used  for  food.  From  the  pine  trees  we  get  turpentine 
and  tar  ;  and  from  the  rubber  tree  is  obtained  a  gummy 
sap  which  is  manufactured  into  rubber.  Trees  are 
also  grown  to  protect  crops  and  buildings  against 
winds  and  to  prevent  erosion  by  running  water. 
Many  kinds  of  trees  are  planted  for  their  beauty. 

Drugs.  —  Another  group  of  plants  furnishes  drugs. 
Most  of  these  drugs  are  used  as  medicines.  A  few, 


PLANTS    GROWN   ON   THE   FARM 


67 


like  tobacco  and  opium,  are  used  by  a  large  number  of 
.people,  not  as  foods  or  medicines,  but  to  satisfy  a  desire 
for  these  products. 


CELERY 

Flowers  and  ornamental  shrubs  are  grown  for 
their  beauty.  On  many  farms  there  could  well  be 
given  more  attention  to  the  growing  of  such  plants  in 
order  to  increase  the  attractiveness  of  the  home  sur- 
roundings, and  thus  increase  the  happiness  of  the  people 
living  on  the  farm. 

Rotation  of  crops.  —  A  farmer  usually  raises  more 
than  one  kind  of  crop.  To  get  the  most  out  of  the  soil 


68  PLANTS    GROWN   ON  THE   FARM 

and  keep  up  its  fertility,  the  general  farmer  practices 
rotation  of  crops.  Instead  of  raising  the  same  crop  on 
the  same  land  each  year,  he  follows  one  crop  with  a 
crop  of  another  kind.  This  is  called  rotation  of  crops. 
One  crop  may  improve  the  soil  for  another  kind 
of  crop.  The  legume  plants  often  enrich  the  soil  by 
adding  nitrogen  which  is  taken  from  the  air  by  the 
bacteria  which  form  nodules  or  tubercles  on  the  roots 
of  these  plants.  A  rotation  of  crops  is  usually  planned 
to  have  the  land  in  clover,  alfalfa,  or  some  other 
legume  crop  for  one  or  more  years;  then  a  cultivated 
crop  like  corn  or  potatoes  is  grown  for  one  or  two 
years ;  and  then  a  grain  crop  for  one  or  two  years, 
after  which  the  land  is  again  seeded  to  another  legume 
crop.  Each  crop  is  called  a  course,  so  if  three  crops 
are  used,  the  plan  is  a  three-course  rotation.  If  a 
farmer  plows  under  a  clover  sod  for  corn,  then  follows 
with  wheat,  and  again  with  clover,  he  is  using  a  three- 
course  rotation. 

QUESTIONS 

1 .  What  crops  are  raised  to  produce  food  for  man  ? 

2.  Make  a  list  of  food  products  for  man  that  are  grown  in 
your  vicinity.     In  what  form  do  they  appear  as  food  ? 

3.  What  are  the  most  important  fiber  plants  of  the  world  ? 
What  is  the  most  important  fiber  crop  of  the  United  States  ? 

4.  What  are  the  most  useful  timber  trees  ? 

5.  What  crops  are  raised  mainly vto  furnish  food  for  animals? 

6.  What  are  cereal  crops  ? 


LESSON  XVI 
POWER   ON   THE  FARM 

Sources  of  power.  —  In  olden  days  most  of  the 
work  on  the  farm  was  done  by  man  power.  The 
muscles  of  men  and  women  were  used  to  hoe  the 


METHOD  OF  HARVESTING  IN  THE  OLDEN  DAYS 

ground,  cut  the  grain  and  hay,  and  carry  the  harvests 
to  the  shed  or  barn.  Although  our  modern  methods 
of  farming  require  more  power  than  ever  before,  yet 
the  farmer  is  using  less  of  his  own  muscular  power. 


70  POWER   ON   THE   FARM 

Draft  animals,  engines,  wind,  and  water  do  the  work 
for  him. 

Draft  animals.  -  -  The  most  common  draft  animals 
are  horses  and  mules.  Oxen  are  used  in  some  parts  of 
our  country  and  in  some  other  countries.  Other  draft 
animals  used  in  different  parts  of  the  world  are  ele- 
phants, buffaloes,  reindeer,  camels,  and  dogs. 

The  horse  and  the  mule  are  raised  for  power  purposes 
alone ;  and  in  many  of  our  states  the  value  of  horses 
and  mules  is  much  greater  than  that  of  cattle  and 
hogs.  If  you  think  of  the  work  of  raising  our  draft 
animals  and  the  amount  of  land  and  time  that  is  given  to 
crops  which  are  grown  for  their  food,  you  will  realize 
the  large  cost  of  power  upon  the  farm. 

Engines.  -  -  Threshing  and  grinding  machinery  is 
usually  run  by  engines  that  use  steam,  gasoline,  or 
kerosene.  If  these  engines  travel  by  their  o\vn  power, 
they  are  called  traction  engines  or  tractors.  Often 
the  land  of  large  farms  is  plowed  by  using  these  traction 
engines  to  pull  the  plows.  Several  furrows  are  plowed 
at  a  time  by  the  use  of  gang  plows  in  which  there 
are  several  moldboard  plows  or  disks  fastened  together. 
With  one  team  of  horses  and  a  single  plow,  a  man  can 
plow  only  an  acre  or  two  in  a  day.  If  he  uses  four 
horses  and  a  two-gang  plow,  one  man  can  break  up 
from  two  to  six  acres  per  day.  But  with  large  plows 
and  engines  he  can  plow  twenty  to  forty  acres  of  land 
in  one  day.  As  a  man's  time  is  worth  more  than  the 
time  of  a  horse  or  a  machine,  there  is  economy  in  using 


POWER   ON   THE    FARM  71 

more  power  to  do  the  work  in  the  shortest  possible 
length  of  time. 

Small  gas  engines  are  becoming  very  important  on 
farms  to  furnish  power  for  many  things  that  were 
formerly  done  by  hand.  Windmills  are  often  used  as 


TRACTION  ENGINE  AT  WORK  ON  A  FARM 

power  to  drive  pumps  and  other  small  machinery. 
By  placing  the  wind  wheels  on  top  of  high  towers,  a 
stronger  wind  can  be  used  to  turn  them  than  if  they 
were  placed  near  the  ground. 

Water  power.  —  It  is  very  likely  that  in  the  future 
water  power  will  be  used  to  do  much  of  the  farm  work. 
By  the  use  of  dynamos  the  power  of  the  falling  water 


72  POWER   ON   THE    FARM 

of  streams  can  be  turned  into  electric  energy,  which 
by  wires  can  be  carried  to  the  electric  motors  on  the 
farms. 

QUESTIONS 

1 .  In  ancient  times  what  was  the  main  source  of  power  used 
in  farming  ? 

2.  What  are  draft  animals  ?     Name  several  draft  animals. 

3.  What  animals  are  raised  in  this  country  for  power? 

4.  What  farming  operations  require  a  large  amount  of  power? 

5.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  using  engines  for 
power  on  the  farm  ? 

6.  For  what  purposes  are  windmills  used? 

7.  How  may  streams  be  used  to  furnish  power  for  farms  ? 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins:   277,  Use  of  alcohol  and  gasoline  in  farm 
engines ;   394,  Use  of  windmills  in  irrigation  in  semiarid  West. 


LESSON  XVII 
HARVESTING   CROPS 

The  time  of  harvest  depends  mainly  on  the  kind  of 
crop  and  the  use  made  of  it.  If  corn  is  grown  for  the 
mature  grain,  the  harvesting  takes  place  in  the  fall 
after  it  is  thoroughly  ripe.  If  it  is  grown  to  be  used 
as  a  vegetable,  it  is  gathered  while  the  grains  are  still 
soft  and  milky.  Oats  grown  for  the  grain  are  cut  after 
the  seeds  are  nearly  mature,  while  if  grown  for  hay,  they 
are  cut  while  the  stems  and  leaves  are  green  and  before 
the  seeds  have  developed  much.  Pears  are  much 
better  if  picked  green  and  allowed  to  ripen  in  storage, 
and  winter  apples  will  ripen  after  they  have  been 
picked.  Some  fruits,  however,  cannot  be  picked  while 
green.  If  grapes  are  picked  while  they  are  green 
and  sour,  they  will  never  get  sweet. 

Hay  and  grain.  —  In  the  greater  part  of  our  country 
the  hay  and  grain  harvests  come  close  together,  and 
this  season  is  usually  the  busiest  time  of  the  year. 
Most  of  the  grain  crops  must  be  harvested  just  before 
the  seeds  are  fully  ripe.  If  the  harvest  is  delayed  too 
long,  the  grains  of  wheat,  oats,  and  barley  will  drop 
from  the  heads  to  the  ground.  The  kernels  of  corn 
are  tightly  fastened  to  the  cob  and  protected  by  the 

73 


74 


HARVESTING   CROPS 


HARVESTING   CROPS  75 

husk,  and,  for  this  reason,  corn  may  be  left  in  the  field 
for  a  long  time  after  it  ripens  in  the  fall. 

Machinery.  -  -  There  has  been  a  wonderful  change 
in  the  possibilities  of  farming  by  the  invention  of  har- 


SCYTHE    AND   CRADLE 


vesting  machinery.  When  the  farmer  had  to  gather 
his  wheat  by  hand  with  a  sickle  or  a  cradle,  he  could 
raise  only  a  few  acres,  for  if  he  raised  more,  a  large  part 
of  the  crop  would  become  over-ripe,  before  it  could  be 


76 


HARVESTING  CROPS 


harvested,  and  the  heads  would  shatter  and  allow 
the  grain  to  fall  to  the  ground.  Now,  with  the  har- 
vester or  self-binder  a  very  large  crop  can  be  harvested 
in  three  or  four  days. 

The  stems  and  leaves  are  the  most  valuable  parts 
of  plants  grown  for  hay ;  and  if  a  crop  is  allowed  to  go 


HAY  STACKER 

to  seed,  the  leaves  become  too  dry  and  the  stems  too 
hard  and  woody  to  make  good  hay.  Most  hay  grasses 
and  clovers  are  therefore  harvested  when  they  come 
into  bloom.  Alfalfa  has  the  most  nutrition  in  the 
stems  and  leaves  when  the  buds  are  first  formed,  and 
before  they  get  into  full  bloom.  Thus  hay  making 
must  be  done  in  the  few  days  when  the  crop  is  at  the 
proper  stage  for  making  good  forage ;  and  the  use  of 


HARVESTING   CROPS  77 

machinery  for  harvesting  hay  has  greatly  increased  the 
acreage  of  hay  crops. 

Hay  is  cut  with  a  mowing  machine  that  can  mow 
from  five  to  ten  acres  in  a  day.  When  the  hay  is 
partly  dry,  it  is  raked  into  windrows  in  which  the  drying 
and  curing  continues.  In  wet  countries  where  the  hay 
does  not  readily  dry  out,  before  raking  it  is  turned  and 
stirred  with  a  machine  called  a  hay  tedder.  From 
the  windrows  the  hay  is  pitched  upon  wagons  with  large 
hayracks  and  taken  to  the  barn  or  stack.  On  some 
farms  the  loading  and  unloading  are  done  by  machinery. 
If  the  hay  is  stacked  in  the  field,  it  is  moved  to  the 
stack  by  means  of  sleds  or  drags.  Very  often,  the  hay 
in  the  windrows  is  gathered  into  small  piles  or  hay- 
cocks and  allowed  to  cure  for  several  days  before  storing 
it  in  a  stack  or  barn.  In  the  haymow  or  stack  the  hay 
goes  through  a  final  curing  process  that  makes  it  crisp, 
palatable,  and  nutritious.  Good,  well-cured  hay  should 
have  all  the  leaves  on  it,  should  be  light  in  color,  free 
from  dust  and  mold,  and  have  a  clean,  sweet  smell. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  the  harvest  season  usually  the  busiest  time  of  the 
year? 

2.  What  good  results  have  come  from  the  use  of  harvesting 
machinery  ? 

3.  What  was  the  old  method  of  harvesting  wheat  ? 

4.  How  is  hay  harvested  ? 

5.  What  qualities  should  hay  possess? 


78  HARVESTING    CROPS 

PRACTICAL    EXERCISES 

1.  Write  a  composition  on  the  development  of  harvesting 
machinery  from  the  reaping  hook  to  the  self-binder,  and  illus- 
trate  with   pictures    that    you   have    collected   of    harvesting 
machinery. 

2.  Explain  how  wheat  or  oats  is  thrashed. 

REFERENCES 

Selected  Readings:  Scythe  Song,  —  Andrew  Lang;  The  Soli- 
tary Reaper,  —  William  Wordsworth. 


LESSON   XVIII 
FORAGE   CROPS 

Three  kinds  of  crops.  -  -  The  crops  used  as  food  for 
animals  are  classed  into  (i)  grain  crops,  (2)  forage 
crops,  and  (3)  root  crops.  By  some  people  the  root 
crops  are  called  forage. 

Forage  includes  hay,  pasture  grass,  silage,  and  fodder. 
In  addition  to  these  common  kinds  of  forage,  many 
other  plants  serve  as  forage  crops.  The  forage  plants 
of  greatest  importance  are  those  used  for  hay,  - 
timothy,  clover,  alfalfa,  and  millet.  In  the  United 
States  the  two  most  important  hay  crops  are  timothy 
and  clover.  Sometimes  the  plants  which  are  usually 
grown  for  grain  are  cut  while  green,  and  are  harvested 
and  fed  like  hay. 

Silage.  —  If  forage  plants  are  placed  while  green  in 
nearly  air-tight  pits  or  vats,  they  will  keep  fresh  for  a 
long  time  and  can  be  fed  as  green  forage  to  the  farm 
animals.  Forage  thus  kept  is  called  silage,  and  the 
buildings  in  which  it  is  stored  are  called  silos.  Corn 
is  the  chief  silage  crop,  but  clover,  sorghum,  millet, 
peas,  and  beans  are  sometimes  used  for  silage.  At 
beet-sugar  factories,  the  beet  pulp  from  which  the 
sugar  has  been  extracted  is  stored  in  silos  and  fed  to 

79 


8o 


FORAGE   CROPS 


cattle.  Corn  intended  for  silage  is  cut  while  green,  and 
the  stalks,  leaves,  and  ears  are  packed  in  the  silo.  In 
some  of  the  Northern  states  where  the  growing  season 

is  too  short  for 
the  corn  to  ripen 
well,  much  of  it 
is  harvested  while 
green  for  silage. 
Silage  cannot  be 
shipped  from  the 
farm  and  fed  to 
animals  in  other 
sections,  but  must 
be  fed  on  the  farm 
where  it  is  stored. 
Fodder.  -  The 
dried  stalks  and 
leaves  of  corn  and 
sorghum  are  called 
fodder.  After  the 
grain  is  thrashed 
from  wheat,  oats, 
and  other  small 
grain  crops,  the  straw  is  used  as  forage.  Oats  straw  is 
a  forage  of  relatively  high  value.  Coarse  forage,  such 
as  fodder  and  straw,  is  spoken  of  as  roughage  or  stover. 
Grazing.  —  Farm  animals  secure  a  large  part  of  their 
forage  foods  by  grazing.  There  are  many  pasture 
grasses,  and  nearly  all  of  the  hay  grasses  also  serve 


A  SILO 


FORAGE   CROPS 


81 


for  grazing  purposes.  Kentucky  blue  grass  is  the  most 
important  pasture  grass.  Several  plants  belonging 
to  the  mustard  family,  such  as  cabbage  and  dwarf  rape, 
are  used  as  pasturage  crops,  being  used  for  feeding 
hogs  and  sheep.  In  the  Western  grazing  states  very 


CATTLE  GRAZING 

much  of  the  forage  comes  from  wild  grasses.  In  the 
Southwest,  the  cactus  is  used  to  some  extent  as  a  forage 
for  cattle ;  but  the  spines  must  be  burned  off  before 
the  animals  can  eat  this  plant.  Mr.  Burbank  has 
introduced  some  kinds  of  cactus  that  have  no  spines, 
and  these  are  relished  by  stock. 

Forage   crops  are  important   farm  products  in  all 

B.   AND   D.   AG.  —  6 


82  FORAGE   CROPS 

sections  of  the  country,  but  in  certain  sections,  hay  and 
pasture  are  the  leading  crops.  Many  of  the  forage 
plants  serve  a  double  purpose,  that  of  yielding  valuable 
food  crops  and  increasing  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 


QUESTIONS 

1 .  What  is  a  forage  crop  ? 

2.  What  crops  are  used  for  forage  in  this  country  ?     In  your 
community  ? 

3.  What  is  silage?     What  crop  is  most  generally  used  for 
silage  ? 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  leading  pasture  plants  ? 

5.  What  straw  has  high  value  as  a  forage  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  Write  a  good  description  of  a  silo. 

2.  Make  a  collection  of  forage  grasses.     Several  stems  of  each, 
with  the  leaves  and  flowers,  should  be  tied  together  and  the 
bunch  neatly  labeled. 

3.  Explain  the  process  of  cutting  corn  ;  baling  straw. 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins :  66,  Meadows  and  pastures ;  102, 
Southern  forage  plants;  271,  Forage  crop  practices  in  western 
Oregon  and  western  Washington ;  300,  Some  important  grasses 
and  forage  plants  for  Gulf  Coast  region ;  312,  Successful  South- 
ern hay  farm;  362,  Conditions  affecting  value  of  market  hay; 
402,  Canada  blue  grass,  its  culture  and  uses;  483,  The  thorn- 
less  prickly  pears ;  508,  Market  hay ;  509,  Forage  crops  for  the 
cotton  regions. 


LESSON  XIX 


TIMOTHY  AND   CLOVER 

Timothy.  —  In  value  and  acreage,  timothy  is  the 
leading  hay  crop  of  the  United  States.  It  is  the  most 
extensively  used  hay  for  feeding  horses,  and  is  in  great 
demand  by  teamsters  and  livery- 
men. For  this  reason,  a  large 
part  of  the  timothy  crop  is  shipped 
from  the  farms  to  the  cities. 

Timothy  is  a  grass  with  fine 
leaves,  slender  stems,  and  long 
heads  filled  with  many  small 
seeds.  It  grows  straight,  is  eas- 
ily cut,  dries  readily,  and  is  free 
from  dust.  The  seed  is  usually 
sown  in  the  fall,  and  yields  a 
crop  the  following  summer.  In 
hilly  sections  of  the  country 
where  hay  is  the  chief  crop, 
many  fields  are  kept  in  timo- 
thy for  several  years,  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil  being  kept  up  by  adding  fertilizers. 

Timothy  and  clover.  —  While  the  acreage  of  timothy 
is  far  greater  than  for  any  other  single  hay  crop,  yet 
the  acreage  of  timothy  and  clover  mixed  is  larger.  This 

83 


TIMOTHY 


TIMOTHY   AND   CLOVER 


WHITE  CLOVER 

serve  as  pasture.  The 
mixed  hay  crop  of  the 
following  summer  will 
be  largely  clover,  but 
the  second  hay  crop 
will  be  mostly  timothy. 
Importance  of  clo- 
vers.— The  clovers  are 
of  special  importance 
because  they  not  only 
furnish  a  food  of  great 
fattening  value,  but 
enrich  the  soil  by  tak- 


grass  and  legume  to- 
gether form  a  hay  of 
great  value  for  general 
feeding  purposes.  The 
timothy  may  be  sown 
in  the  fall  and  the 
clover  added  to  it  in 
the  spring;  or  both, 
in  the  spring,  may  be 
sown  in  wheat  or  oats. 
After  the  nurse  crop 
of  wheat  or  oats  is 
harvested,  the  young 
clover  and  timothy 


RED  CLOVER 


TIMOTHY   AND   CLOVER  85 

ing  in  nitrogen  from  the  air  in  the  soil.  Because  of 
the  fertilizing  value  of  clover,  it  is  the  forage  crop 
which  is  most  often  used  in  rotation  plans. 

Kinds  of  clover.  —  A  true  clover  has  each  leaf  made 
up  of  three  leaflets,  and  the  flowers  are  grouped  to- 
gether in  bunches  or  heads.  There  are  four  kinds  of 
clover  grown  by  farmers.  These  are  red,  crimson, 
white,  and  alsike  clovers.  The  red,  crimson,  and  alsike 
clovers  are  used  for  hay  and  pasture.  Crimson  clover  is 
also  frequently  used  as  a  cover  crop  for  orchards.  The 
white  clover  is  used  for  pastures  and  lawns.  Red 
clover  is  by  far  the  most  important  of  the  clovers.  A 
number  of  legumes,  as  sweet  clover,  Florida  clover, 
beggarweed,  and  Japan  clover  are  called  clovers, 
but  they  are  not  true  clovers. 

The  crimson  clover  is  an  annual  plant,  therefore  the 
seed  must  be  sown  every  year.  Red  clover  is  a  biennial 
plant ;  that  is,  it  lives  for  two  years ;  but  under  favorable 
conditions  it  may  live  longer.  Some  of  the  clovers 
are  perennial,  living  several  years. 

Clover  grows  best  on  good,  well-tilled,  and  sweet 
soil.  Sometimes  acids  sour  the  soil ;  and  clover  will 
not  grow  until  lime  has  been  added  to  destroy  the  acid 
and  thus  sweeten  the  soil. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  leading  hay  crop  of  the  United  States? 

2.  What  qualities  of  timothy  make  it  a  good  hay  ? 

3.  Why  is  clover  of  such  great  importance  to  the  farmer  ? 


86  TIMOTHY   AND    CLOVER 

4.  What  are  the  classes  of  true  clovers  ? 

5.  What  is  a  rather  common  cause  for  repeated  failures  to 
get  a  stand  of  clover  on  some  fields  ?    What  is  the  remedy  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  Obtain  specimens  of  timothy  and  the  most  common  kinds  of 
clover.     Study  the  roots,  stem,  leaves,   flowers,   and  seed  of 
each  plant.     In  digging,  get  all  the  root  system,  if  possible. 

2.  Look  for  nodules  on  the  roots  of  these  plants.     Can  you 
find  any  on  the  roots  of  timothy  ? 

3.  Explain  the  process  and  machinery  used  in  mowing  and 
stacking  hay. 

REFERENCES 

Bulletins  on  clover  and  timothy  published  by  the  Agricultural 
College  and  Experiment  Station  in  your  state.  Farmers' 
Bulletins:  123,  Red  clover  seed,  information  for  purchasers; 
260,  Seed  of  red  clover  and  its  impurities ;  323,  Clover  farming 
on  sandy  jack-pine  lands  of  the  North;  455,  Red  clover;  485, 
Sweet  clover;  502,  Timothy  production  on  irrigated  land  in 
the  Northwestern  states. 


LESSON  XX 
ALFALFA 

Alfalfa  is  a  legume.  -  -  The  flowers  grow  in  little 
spikelets  or  clusters  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves  on  the 
upper  part  of  the  stem.  The  taproot  of  alfalfa  grows 
deep  into  the  soil  and  lives  many  years.  It  is  said  that 
fields  of  alfalfa  in  Spain  have  lived  one  hundred  and 
eighty  years  from  one  planting.  In  western  America 
there  are  fields  forty  or  fifty  years  old.  On  some  soils 
alfalfa  may  live  only  a  few  seasons. 

The  word  alfalfa  comes  from  an  Arabic  word  which 
means  the  best  fodder.  The  plant  is  a  native  of  Asia 
and  was  brought  to  Greece  and  Italy  many  centuries 
ago.  In  some  places,  alfalfa  is  called  lucerne,  which 
is  the  name  of  a  valley  in  Italy,  from  which  place  it  was 
taken  to  all  parts  of  Europe. 

Effect  on  the  soil.  —  Alfalfa  is  now  grown  in  all  parts 
of  the  United  States  and  in  Canada.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  useful,  most  profitable,  and  most  highly 
prized  crops.  It  is  not  only  a  valuable  hay  and  pasture 
crop,  but  also  an  improver  of  the  soil  in  which  it  grows. 
The  soil  in  which  alfalfa  has  grown  for  a  few  years  is 
so  rich  that  it  will  produce  large  yields  of  other  crops. 

Large  crops.  —  Alfalfa  gives  the  largest  yields  of  any 
hay  plant.  It  furnishes  two  crops  a  year  in  the  northern 

87 


ALFALFA 


part  of  the  country  where  the  growing  season  is  short, 
and  as  many  as  eight  crops  a  year  where  the  climate 

enables  it  to  grow  almost  the 
whole  year.  It  yields  from 
three  to  eight  tons  per  acre  of 
hay  in  a  year. 

Bacteria  needed. — This  crop 
prefers  deep,  sweet  soils.  It  is 
especially  suited  to  arid  regions, 
where  it  is  easily  raised  by  irri- 
gation. Sometimes  the  bac- 
teria which  live  on  the  roots 
and  gather  nitrogen  from  the 
air  are  not  present ;  and  if  this 
is  the  case,  the  soil  should  be  in- 
oculated with  the  nitrogen-fix- 
ing bacteria.  This  is  usually 
done  by  taking  soil  from  an 
alfalfa  field  where  the  bacteria 
are  present,  and  scattering  it 
over  the  ground  to  be  inocu- 
lated. 

Seeding.  —  Alfalfa  is  grown 
from  seeds.  Most  of  the  seed 
comes  from  dry  regions  where 
alfalfa  growing  is  an  important  branch  of  farming.  The 
seeds  are  small,  so  there  should  be  a  well-prepared  seed 
bed  that  is  well  pulverized,  free  from  weeds,  and  com- 
pact. The  seeds  may  be  sown  broadcast,  but  better 


ALFALFA  PLANTS 


ALFALFA  89 

results  are  obtained  when  they  are  planted  with  an 
alfalfa  drill  that  scatters  the  seeds  evenly  in  rows  seven 
or  eight  inches  apart.  If  a  seed  crop  is  to  be  grown,  the 
seeds  should  be  spread  far  apart,  using  two  or  three 
pounds  of  seed  per  acre.  The  best  hay  is  from  fields 
with  a  thick  stand  of  plants,  and  for  a  hay  crop  from  ten 


CUTTING  ALFALFA 

to  twenty-five  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  are  sown. 
Alfalfa  is  sown  in  the  spring  or  summer,  and  where 
conditions  are  favorable,  the  seed  may  be  sown  with  a 
grain  crop. 

Harvesting.  — The  young  alfalfa  plants  should  not 
be  cut  too  soon  after  they  begin  growing,  or  before  they 
begin  to  branch  by  throwing  out  new  stems  from  the 
crowns  of  the  roots.  When  raised  for  hay,  alfalfa  is 


QO  ALFALFA 

cut  with  mowing  machines.  Alfalfa  for  seed  is  har- 
vested with  a  reaper  or  binder  or  with  a  mowing  machine 
that  has  an  attachment  for  bunching  the  crop. 

Value.  —  Alfalfa  is  one  of  the  best  foods  in  the  world 
for  stock.  It  is  used  mostly  for  hay,  but  it  makes 
excellent  pasture  for  horses,  sheep,  swine,  and  poultry. 
It  is  one  of  the  best  soiling  plants.  In  many  localities 
the  hay  is  ground  into  meal,  which  can  be  fed  without 
waste.  The  young  plants  are  sometimes  boiled  and 
eaten  as  greens.  Bees  make  fine  honey  from  the 
blossoms  of  alfalfa. 

QUESTION 

1 .  Why  is  alfalfa  such  an  important  forage  crop  ? 

2.  What  kind  of  soil  is  best  for  this  crop  ? 

3.  How  is  alfalfa  sown  and  harvested  ? 

4.  In  what  sections  of  the  country  is  alfalfa  the  leading  hay 
crop? 

5.  What  is  the  common  cause  of  failure  to  get  a  good  stand  of 
alfalfa  ?     What  is  the  remedy  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISE 

i.  Dig  up  an  alfalfa  plant,  getting  as  much  of  the  roots  as  pos- 
sible, and  study  the  parts  of  the  plant.  Are  there  nodules  on 
the  roots  ?  How  does  alfalfa  differ  from  clover  ? 

REFERENCES 

Bulletins  on  alfalfa  published  by  the  Agricultural  College 
and  Experiment  Station  in  your  state.  Farmers'  Bulletins : 
194,  Alfalfa  seed;  339,  Alfalfa;  373,  Irrigation  of  alfalfa;  495, 
Alfalfa  seed  production. 


LESSON  XXI 
MILLET,  SORGHUM,  AND   OTHER   FORAGE   CROPS 

The  millets  are  cereal  grasses  whose  seeds  are  exten- 
sively used  as  human  food  in  parts  of  Asia.  In  this 
country  the  millets  are  grown  mainly  for  hay.  The 
crushed  seeds  are  used  to  some  extent  as  food  for 
stock.  The  three  millets  most  generally  grown  in 
the  United  States  are  the  common  millet,  Hungarian 
millet,  and  German  millet.  These  grasses  make  quick 
growth  and  come  to  maturity  in  a  shorter  time  than 
most  grasses,  and  for  this  reason  they  are  called  short 
season  crops.  The  seed  is  usually  sown  in  the  spring, 
but  may  be  sown  in  midsummer. 

The  sorghums  are  grasses  which  are  grown  in  this 
country  mainly  for  forage,  while  in  parts  of  Africa  and 
Asia  the  seeds  form  an  important  food  for  man.  The 
principal  kinds  of  sorghum  are  sweet  sorghum,  Kafir 
corn,  milo  maize,  Jerusalem  corn,  and  broom  corn. 
The  sweet  sorghum  is  grown  for  the  molasses,  which  is 
made  from  the  sweet  juice  of  the  stem.  The  sweet 
sorghum  is  also  used  for  fodder  and  silage.  Broom 
corn  is  grown  for  the  tassels  from  which  brooms  are 
made.  The  Kafir  corn,  milo  maize,  and  Jerusalem 
corn  are  tropical  or  subtropical  plants,  and  are  able 

91 


92      MILLET,   SORGHUM,   AND   FORAGE   CROPS 


A  FIICLD  OF  MILLET 


MILLET,   SORGHUM,   AND    FORAGE   CROPS     93 

to  live  in  hot,  dry  climates.  These  plants  are  grown 
for  fodder  and  also  for  the  seed  which  is  being  used  as 
food  for  stock. 

Sorghum    may    be   sown    broadcast   and   the   crop 
harvested  the  same  as  hay ;   or  it  may  be  planted  in 


NODULES  ON  ALFALFA  ROOTS  AND  RED  CLOVER  ROOTS 

drill  rows  or  hills  and  cultivated  and  harvested  the 
same  as  corn. 

Root  nodules.  —  Like  clover  and  alfalfa,  peas,  beans, 
vetches,  and  lentils  are  legumes,  and  have  nodules  on 
their  roots  which  are  produced  by  the  nitrogen-gather- 
ing bacteria.  The  value  of  these  plants  in  enriching 


94     MILLET,   SORGHUM,   AND   FORAGE   CROPS 


PEA  PLANT 


crop  may  be  used 
as  hay  or  silage. 

The  cowpeas  are 
a  kind  of  bean 
widely  grown  in  the 
Southern  states. 
They  make  a  valu- 
able hay  crop  and 
also  improve  the 
soil  for  other  crops. 
Soy  beans  are 
grown  to  improve 
the  soil  and  also 
for  hay  or  silage. 


the  ground  with  ni- 
trogen has  led  to  their 
use  as  forage  crops 
in  regular  rotation 
courses. 

Peas  require  a  cool 
climate  and  moist  soil 
in  order  to  yield  the 
best  crops.  The  pea 
vines  are  cut  with 
mowing  machines,  or 
with  reapers  that  pile 
them  in  bunches.  The 


BKAN  PLANT; 


MILLET,   SORGHUM,    AND    FORAGE   CROPS     95 

As  forage  crops,  both  cowpeas  and  soy  beans  are 
nutritious  foods  for  live  stock. 

The  vetches  are  slender  climbing  plants  which  are 
grown  to  plow  under  as  a  green  manure,  and  as  pasture 
and  hay  plants. 

Peas,  beans,  and  lentils  have  been  grown  for  cen- 
turies for  food  for  man.  Peas  and  beans  are  common 


BEAN  HARVESTER 


garden  crops  and  in  some  sections  are  grown  as  field 
crops  for  market  purposes.  The  pea  vines  are  cut 
and  hauled  to  the  canning  factories,  where  there  are 
threshing  machines  which  thresh  out  the  green  peas 
and  separate  them  into  different  sizes  for  canning. 
The  vines  are  used  for  forage.  The  beans  are  planted 
in  rows  or  hills  like  corn,  and  harvested  with  a  bean 
cutter,  or  pulled  by  hand,  and  are  threshed  like  other 
seeds  by  tramping  or  pounding  or  by  bean  threshers. 
The  bean  straw  is  used  as  forage  for  sheep  and  cows, 


96       MILLET,   SORGHUM,   AND   FORAGE   CROPS 

and  the  best  beans  are  used  as  human  food,  while  the 
inferior  grades  are  fed  to  animals.  Lentils  have  two 
small,  lens-shaped  seeds  in  each  pod.  They  are  grown 
only  to  a  very  small  extent  in  this  country. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  chief  use  of  millet  in  Asia? 

2.  What  is  the  principal  use  of  millet  in  this  country  ? 

3.  What  are  the  most  common  kinds  of  millet? 

4.  What  sorghum  plants  are  raised  in  this  country  ? 

5.  In  addition  to  clover  and  alfalfa,  what  other  leguminous 
plants  are  raised  for  forage  ? 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  101,  Millets;  164,  Rape  as  a  forage 
crop;'  224,  Canadian  field  peas;  278,  Leguminous  crops  for 
green  manuring;  318,  Cowpeas;  322,  Milo  as  a  dry-land  crop; 
372,  Soy  beans ;  441,  Lespedeza,  or  Japan  clover;  515,  Vetches. 


LESSON  XXII 
WHEAT 

Kinds  of  wheat.  —  Bread  is  the  "  staff  of  life,"  and 
wheat  bread  is  the  most  important  food  of  the  leading 
nations.  It  contains  so  much  of 
the  nutritive  elements  needed  by 
man  that  it  is  almost  a  perfect 
food.  There  are  many  kinds  of 
wheat.  Einkorn,  spelt,  emmer, 
durum  wheat,  composite  wheat, 
Polish  wheat,  and  common  wheat 
are  some  of  the  most  important 
types.  Common  wheat,  the  most 
extensively  grown  of  the  wheats, 
is  divided  into  spring  wheat,  and 
winter  or  fall  wheat.  Spring 
wheat  is  sown  in  the  spring,  while 
the  winter  or  fall  wheat  is  sown  in 
the  autumn. 

Manner  of   growth.  —  From  a 
central  stem  beneath  the  ground  WHEAT  PLANT 

several  tillers  or  shoots  grow  into  stems.  Thus  a 
single  grain  produces  several  stalks  of  wheat,  while  a 
grain  of  corn  produces  a  single  stalk.  The  roots  of 
the  wheat  are  many  and  fibrous,  and  the  stems  are 

B.  AND  D.  AG.  —  ^  97 


WHEAT 


jointed  and  hollow  between  the  joints.     The  lower 
parts  of  the  leaves  are  wrapped  around  the  stems,  while 


HARVESTER 

the  upper  parts  are  long,  narrow,  pointed  blades.  The 
head  or  spike  at  the  top  of  the  stem  contains  many 
spikelets,  each  containing  one  to  five  seeds.  As  there 
are  many  spikelets  on  each  head  and  many  tillers  or 
stems  from  each  seed,  one  plant  may  bear  many  hundred- 
fold. 

Farmers  raise  usually  from  ten  to  thirty  bushels  of 
wheat  per  acre,  although  sometimes  as  much  as  seventy 
bushels  per  acre  is  grown  on  good  soils  that  are  well 
farmed. 

Soil.  —  Wheat  does  best  on  light  clay  and  loam 
soils.  The  seed  is  usually  planted  with  a  drill  in  rows 
a  few  inches  apart.  In  most  states  the  farmer  sows 
about  one  to  one  and  a  quarter  bushels  of  seed  wheat 


WHEAT 


99 


per  acre.  The  wheat  field  may  be  harrowed  to  stir 
the  ground  before  the  plants  have  grown  high  enough 
to  be  injured ;  but  usually  no  cultivation  is  given  to 
the  wheat.  When  grown  by  irrigation,  wheat  is 
generally  flooded  with  water  from  one  to  five  times 
during  the  growing  season. 

Harvesting.  —  Wheat  is  harvested  with  a  self- 
binder  or  harvester  which  cuts  the  wheat  and  binds  it 
into  bundles  or  sheaves.  Several  bundles  are  placed 
together  in  shocks  or  stocks.  When  dry,  the  sheaves 
are  hauled  to  the  threshing  machine,  or  placed  in  stacks 
and  threshed  a  few  weeks  later.  Sometimes  wheat 
is  cut  with  heading  machines  or  strippers,  from  which 
the  wheat  heads  go  direct  to  the  thresher. 


REAPER  AND  THRESHER 


Threshing.  -  -  The  threshing  machine  separates  the 
grain  from  the  chaff  and  straw.     Fifty  years  ago  wheat 


IOO 


WHEAT 


WHEAT  101 

was  threshed  with  a  flail  or  tramped  out  by  animals. 
We  now  have  threshing  machines  or  separators  run  by 
engines  which  thresh  many  thousands  of  bushels  in  a 
day.  On  very  large  farms  a  combined  reaper  and 
thresher  is  used,  that  cuts  from  twenty  to  forty  acres 
of  grain  a  day  and  at  the  same  time  threshes  and  sacks 
it  ready  for  market. 

Einkorn,  spelt,  and  emmer  are  types  of  wheat  which 
are  like  oats,  in  that  the  hull  adheres  to  the  grain,  while 
in  common  wheat  the  grain  is  free  from  the  husks  which 
held  the  grain  before  threshing.  With  the  exception 
of  emmer,  these  grains  do  not  promise  to  become  very 
important  in  American  agriculture. 

Emmer  is  not  subject  to  some  of  the  plant  diseases 
that  affect  other  kinds  of  wheat.  It  is  also  a  drought- 
resistant  crop  and  therefore  grows  better  in  dry  regions 
than  other  forms  of  wheat.  For  this  reason  it  is  becom- 
ing an  important  crop  in  dry  farming. 

Emmer  is  planted  and  grown  like  wheat.  It  is 
threshed  in  the  same  way,  except  that  the  kernels  are 
not  separated  from  the  hulls.  The  grains  are  rich  in 
minerals,  protein,  and  starch ;  and  in  parts  of  the 
world,  emmer  is  an  important  food  for  man,  being  used 
as  a  breakfast  food.  In  the  time  of  the  Romans  it 
was  ground  into  flour  for  bread.  It  is  a  valuable  food 
for  stock.  The  hull  on  the  grain  has  some  value  in 
stock  feeding ;  it  makes  the  animal  chew  the  grain  to 
get  the  flavor  of  the  kernel,  and  thus  helps  digestion. 


102  WHEAT 

QUESTIONS 

1 .  What  are  the  leading  kinds  of  wheat  ? 

2.  What  soils  are  well  adapted  to  wheat  growing  ? 

3.  In  what  respects  does  emmer  differ  from  common  wheat  ? 

4.  What  are  tillers  ? 

5.  What  is  the  average  yield  of  wheat  in  your  locality? 
What  are  some  of  the  highest  yields  ? 

6.  What  are  some  of  the  common  causes  of  low  wheat  yields 
in  your  section  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

Write  a  short  composition  on  the  growing  of  wheat  in  your 
locality.  Give  the  methods  of  preparing  the  soil,  sowing  the 
seed,  and  harvesting  the  crop. 

Find  the  average  yield  per  acre  of  wheat  in  the  United  States 
and  in  the  leading  wheat  countries  of  the  world. 

Make  a  collection  of  the  most  important  kinds  of  wheat. 
Each  sample  of  grain  may  be  kept  in  a  small  bottle. 

Plant  several  grains  of  wheat  in  a  can  or  pot  of  earth.  At 
the  end  of  one  week  remove  two  or  three  of  the  sprouting  grains. 
How  many  temporary  roots  are  there?  Make  a  drawing  of 
the  young  plants  at  this  stage.  A  week  later  remove  two  or 
three  other  young  plants  and  note  the  growth  of  permanent 
roots.  Make  drawings.  Examine  others  at  intervals  of  one 
week  to  note  the  growth  of  tillers. 

REFERENCES 

Write  to  your  Agricultural  College  for  bulletins  on  wheat 
growing. 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  132,  Principal  insect  enemies  of  growing 
wheat;  139,  Emmer,  a  grain  for  semiarid  regions;  466,  Winter 
emmer. 


LESSON   XXIII 
CORN 

Importance  of  corn.  —  In  acreage  and  value,  corn  is 
the  most  important  crop  of  the  United  States.  Al- 
though grown  in  every  state,  yet  more  than  half  of  the 
corn  crop  is  raised  in  the  seven  states  of  Illinois,  Iowa, 
Missouri,  Nebraska,  Indiana,  Kansas,  and  Ohio.  The 
United  States  produces  about  three  times  as  much  corn 
as  the  rest  of  the  world ;  but  corn  is  not  an  important 
export  of  this  country,  for  most  of  it  is  fed  to  cattle 
and  hogs.  The  meat  of  these  animals,  however,  is  one 
of  our  leading  exports. 

Soil  and  climate.  -  -  The  main  geographic  factors  in 
the  growth  of  corn  are  soil  and  climate.  Clay  loams 
and  silt  loams  are  good  corn  soils.  The  silt  loams1  of 
river  bottoms  are  especially  adapted  to  corn  growing. 
Corn  requires  a  large  amount  of  humus,  which  is  added 
to  the  soil  by  stable  manure  and  legume  crops.  The 
summers  must  be  hot,  with  warm  nights,  much  sunshine, 
and  of  sufficient  length  that  the  corn  may  ripen  before 
frost.  The  most  common  cause  of  low  yields  of  corn 
is  a  shortage  of  rain  during  the  growing  season.  A  crop 
needs  from  ten  to  fifteen  inches  of  rain  pretty  evenly 
distributed  through  the  season.  The  moist  soil  of 


104 


CORN 


river  valleys  is  another  cause  of  the  high  yield  of  river 
bottoms.  During  droughts  that  seriously  affect  the 
crop  on  uplands,  the  corn  on  bottom  land  has  sufficient 
moisture. 

Plowing.  —  Most  of  the  land  for  corn  is  plowed  in 
the  spring,  although  a  considerable  acreage  is  plowed 
in  the  fall.  The  best  time  to  plow  depends  on  the 

character  of  the 
soil,  lay  of  the 
land,  climate,  and 
previous  crop. 
The  seed  bed 
should  be  deep  and 
well  pulverized.  In 
a  stiff  clay  corn 
should  be  planted 
one  inch  deep,  and 
in  open,  dry  soils  it 
should  be  planted 

CORN  IN  SHOCKS  r          .      •, 

three  or  four  inches 

deep.  In  some  places  where  the  ground  is  dry  on  top, 
the  corn  is  often  planted  in  the  bottom  of  furrows 
made  by  a  lister.  The  time  of  planting  varies  with 
locality  and  season. 

Planting.  —  As  a  rule,  corn  is  planted  just  as  soon  as 
the  ground  is  warm  and  the  danger  of  frost  is  over. 
Since  it  is  so  often  true  that  early  planted  corn  gives 
the  best  yield,  it  is  desirable  that  the  preparation  of 
the  ground  be  sufficiently  advanced,  so  that  planting 


CORN 


105 


may  be  done  as  soon  as  the  ground  and  air  are  warm 
enough. 

Cultivation.  —  Shortly  after  the  corn  is  planted,  the 
cultivation  begins  and  is  continued  until  the  corn  is 
so  large  that  the  horses  and  cultivators  cannot  pass 
through  the  fields  without  injuring  the  corn.  Be- 


CORN  CULTIVATOR 

fore  the  corn  is  up,  or  while  it  is  quite  small,  the  crop 
may  be  given  the  first  cultivation  by  harrowing.  The 
other  cultivations  are  done  with  corn  cultivators  that 
stir  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  from  one  to  three  inches,  to 
kill  weeds,  and  save  moisture.  During  the  dry  weeks 
of  the  summer  it  is  very  important  that  a  mulch  of 
fine  soil  be  kept  to  reduce  the  evaporation  of  soil  mois- 
ture. After  each  summer  rain  the  ground  should  be 
given  another  plowing  to  form  this  soil  mulch  and  thus 
save  the  moisture  for  a  possible  drought. 


io6 


CORN 


Harvesting.  -  -  The  corn  crop  ripens  in  from  three  to 
five  months.     Roasting  ears  may  be  ready  for  use  in 


CORN  FIELD  WITH  RIPE  CORN 

less  than  two  months.  The  corn  crop  is  harvested 
in  two  or  three  different  ways.  The  most  common 
method  is  to  husk  the  ears  from  the  standing  stalks, 
which  are  left  in  the  field  and  pastured  by  the  live  stock 
during  the  winter  months.  Another  method  is  to  cut 
the  cornstalks  by  hand  or  with  a  corn-harvesting 
machine  and  then  place  the  fodder  in  shocks.  Later 
in  the  season  the  ears  may  be  husked  by  hand  from  the 
fodder,  or  the  fodder  may  be  run  through  a  corn  shredder 
that  husks  the  corn  and  then  shreds  the  stalks,  leaves, 
and  husks  into  small  pieces,  which  are  stored  in  barns 
for  forage.  On  many  farms  where  there  are  large 


CORN 


107 


numbers  of  live  stock,  the  corn  is  cut  while  green  and 
put  into  silos  and  fed  as  silage. 

Uses  of  corn.  —  All  parts  of  the  corn  plant,  except 
the  roots,  are  utilized.  The  stalks,  leaves,  and  husks 
form  good  forage,  while  the  grain  is  the  best  stock  food 
in  the  world.  A  small  percentage  of  corn  is  used  in 
making  alcohol  and  spirituous  liquors.  The  part  of 
the  grain  left  after  it  is  malted  is  used  for  stock  food. 
Corn  oil  is  made  from  the  germs  or  embryos  of  corn. 
Cobs  are  used  for  fuel,  and  the  pith  is  used  for  pack- 
ing. Corn  is  also  an  important  human  food.  Many  of 
the  breakfast  foods  are  made  wholly  or  partly  of  corn. 
Hominy  is  the  corn  kernels  with  the  outer  skin  removed. 
Corn  starch  is  made  from  the  starchy  part  of  the  grain. 
Sweet  corn  and  pop  corn  are  grown  only  for  human 
food. 


EARS  OF  CORN  SELKCTKD  FOR  SEKD 


Seed  corn.  -  -  The  selection,  storage,  and  testing  of 
seed  corn  is  a  very  important  part  of  corn  culture.     In 


io8  CORN 

the  early  fall,  before  husking  time,  the  farmer  should 
go  through  his  fields  and  select  the  very  best  ears  for 
seed.  They  should  be  stored  in  a  dry  place  that  is  well 
ventilated,  and  where  mice  and  rats  cannot  molest. 
Seed  corn  should  never  be  stored  in  boxes,  barrels,  or 
sacks.  In  the  spring,  five  grains  from  each  ear  should 
be  put  in  germinating  boxes  in  order  to  test  the  vitality 
of  the  seed.  Ears  of  corn  whose  grains  do  not  all 
sprout  or  do  not  show  a  vigorous  growth  should  be 
rejected. 

The  average  yield  of  corn  for  the  whole  country  is 
about  twenty-four  bushels  per  acre,  but  good  farmers 
often  grow  more  than  one  hundred  bushels  per  acre. 
In  a  few  cases  about  two  hundred  bushels  per  acre 
have  been  raised.  From  eight  to  fourteen  tons  or 
more  of  green  plants  per  acre  may  be  grown  for  silage, 
and  from  two  to  two  and  one  half  tons  of  dry  plants  or 
fodder. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  do  we  mean  by  "  corn  "  ?     What  is  meant  by  the 
same  word  in  Eastern  countries  ?     Why  is  it  sometimes  called 
Indian  corn? 

2.  What  are  the  leading  corn  states  of  the  United  States  ? 

3.  What  kinds  of  soil  are  best  for  corn  ? 

4.  What  climatic  conditions  are  most  favorable  for  corn  ? 

5.  How  did  the  pioneers  manage  to  grow  it  in  the  woods  ? 

6.  What  is  the  most  common  cause  of  poor  corn  crops  ? 

7.  What  are  the  main  objects  of  corn  cultivation  ? 

8.  In  what  different  ways  is  corn  harvested  ? 


CORN 


109 


9.  What  is  the  most  important  use  of  corn?     Name  other 
uses. 

10.  Although  corn  is  our  leading  crop,  why  do  we  export  so 
little  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  On  a  plate  put  a  moist  cloth  or  piece  of  blotting  paper. 
Place  several  grains  of  corn  on  the  moist  surface,  and  cover 
with  another  plate.     Keep  in  a  warm  place  and  observe  from 
day  to  day  the  germination  of  the  corn.     Note  the  root  hairs. 
How  many  temporary  roots  are  there?     Make  drawings  of  a 
germinating  grain  at  different  stages  of  growth. 

2.  In  a  tall  bottle  or  glass  jar  of  soil,  plant  five  grains  of  corn 
at  each  of  the  following  depths :   one,  two,  four,  and  six  inches. 
Keep  the  soil  moist,  but  not  too  wet.     Observe  from  day  to  day 
the  growth  at  each  depth.     Note   the  growth  of  temporary 
and  permanent  roots.     How  long  does  it  take  for  the  plants  to 
come  up  from  each  depth  ?     Which  plants  are  the  strongest  ? 

3.  In  order  to  test  seed  corn,  a  germination  test  should  be 
carried  out.     Procure  a  box  two  or  three  inches  deep,  two  feet 
wide,  and  two  and  one  half  feet  long.     Across  the  top  of  the 
box  stretch  wire  or  twine  to  divide  the  space  into  two-inch 
squares,  and  then  fill  the  box  with  sand  to  the  level  of  the  wire 
or  twine.     Six  kernels  from  each  numbered  ear  of  corn  are  to 
be  placed  in  a  square  having  the  same  number  as  the  ear. 

Take  the  kernels  from  different  parts  of  an  ear,  but  not  from 
the  base  nor  tip.  The  kernels  should  be  pressed  into  the  sand, 
but  not  completely  buried.  Moisten  the  sand  and  cover  with 
glass  or  other  suitable  material.  Keep  in  a  warm  place,  at  a 
temperature  of  about  70  degrees.  If  all  the  grains  from  an  ear 
do  not  send  out  vigorous  root  and  stem  sprouts  within  four  or 
five  days,  the  ear  should  not  be  used  for  seed  corn. 

4.  Write  to  the  Agricultural  College  in  your  state  for  the 
score  card  used  in  judging  seed  com.     Bring  to  school  ten  ears 


1 10  CORN 

of  the  best  corn  you  can  find,  and  use  the  score  card  in  judging 
this  corn.  If  possible,  an  expert  corn  judge  should  correct  your 
estimates. 

REFERENCES 

Write  to  your  Agricultural  College  for  bulletins  on  corn  growing. 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  32,  Silos  and  silage;  81,  Corn  culture  in 
the  South;  229,  Production  of  good  seed  corn;  253,  Germina- 
tion of  seed  corn  ;  292,  Cost  of  filling  silos ;  298,  Food  value  of 
corn  and  corn  products;  303,  Corn-harvesting  machinery;  313, 
Harvesting  and  storing  corn;  325,  Small  farms  in  corn  belt; 
400,  More  profitable  corn-planting  method ;  409,  School  lessons 
on  corn;  414,  Corn  cultivation;  415,  Seed  corn. 

Selected  Readings:  The  Corn  Song,  —  J.  G.  Whittier; 
Maize,  —  William  W.  Fosdick ;  Blessing  the  Cornfields  (Hia- 
watha), —  Longfellow. 


LESSON  XXIV 
RICE 

Rice  an  important  food.  —  Rice  is  a  cereal  grass,  the 
seeds  of  which  are  used  for  food  by  two  fifths  of  the 
people  in  the  world.  The  rice  plant,  like  the  wheat, 
produces  many  stems  from  one  seed,  but  the  heads 
bearing  the  seeds  form  a  loose,  nodding  spray  with 
only  one  seed  in  a  place. 

Where  grown.  —  Rice  is  a  tropical  and  semitropical 
plant  growing  in  lowlands  which  can  be  flooded  at 
certain  times,  for  rice  is  the  only  crop  that  grows  for 
the  greater  part  of  the  time  in  water.  Rice  is  grown 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States.  Louisiana, 
Texas,  and  Arkansas  are  the  leading  rice  states. 

Method  of  planting.  —  Rice  is  planted  in  the  spring, 
from  March  to  May,  and  harvested  in  the  fall  from 
August  to  October.  There  are  two  ways  of  preparing 
the  land  for  growing  rice.  It  may  be  plowed  and  har- 
rowed under  the  water,  or  the  seed  bed  may  be  pre- 
pared in  dry  ground.  The  seed  is  sown  broadcast  or 
drilled  in  rows  twelve  or  eighteen  inches  apart.  From 
one  to  three  bushels  of  seed  are  sown  per  acre.  The 
rice  fields  have  dikes  or  little  dams  built  around  them 
to  hold  the  water,  and  after  the  seed  is  planted  the 
fields  are  flooded  with  water,  which  remains  on  the 


H2  RICE 

land  for  five  or  six  days  to  sprout  the  seed.  The  water 
is  then  turned  off  and  the  plants  allowed  to  grow  until 
they  have  two  leaves.  Then  the  land  is  again  flooded, 
covering  the  little  plants  about  six  inches.  This  irri- 
gation lasts  about  twenty  days  or  a  month,  when  the 


A  FIELD  OF  RICE 

water  is  turned  off,  and  the  rice  is  allowed  to  grow  for 
a  month  or  so,  when  the  fields  are  again  flooded  and  the 
plants  left  standing  in  the  water  from  about  June  to 
August,  or  until  the  crop  is  full  grown.  The  water  is 
drained  off,  so  that  the  crop  will  ripen  and  the  ground 
dry  out  for  harvesting. 


RICE  113 

Harvesting.  -  -  The  rice  is  cut  with  a  sickle,  or  a 
harvesting  machine.  It  is  threshed  with  the  same 
machine  that  is  used  for  threshing  other  small  grains. 
The  yield  per  acre  is  from  ten  to  twenty  barrels  of 
1 60  pounds  each.  The  rice  grains  from  the  thresher 
are  covered  with  husks,  and  are  called  rough  rice  or 
paddy.  The  rice  is  then  taken  to  mills  which  remove 
the  husks  and  polish  the  grains.  This  polish  or  glossy 
finish  is  put  on  by  running  the  rice  through  cylinders 
lined  with  soft  sheepskin. 

Cooking.  —  Rice  is  usually  cooked  by  boiling,  or 
it  may  be  puffed  by  machinery  and  used  as  a  breakfast 
food,  or  as  a  confection,  like  popcorn.  It  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  starch  and  is  also  used  as  a  malting 
grain  for  making  beer.  Poorer  grades  are  used  for 
stock  food.  Rice  straw  is  coarse  and  of  little  value, 
except  to  plow  in  the  soil  as  a  fertilizer. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  In  what  countries  is  rice  the  chief  food  of  the  people  ? 

2.  What  are  the  leading  rice  states  of  the  United  States? 

3.  How  is  rice  cultivated  ?     How  is  it  harvested  ? 

4.  After  harvesting,  what  changes  must  rice  undergo  before 
it  is  ready  for  the  table  ? 

REFERENCES 

If  you  live  in  a  rice-growing  state,  obtain  from  the  Agricultural 
College  bulletins  on  the  growing  of  rice. 

Farmers'  Bulletins  :  1 10,  Rice  culture  in  the  United  States ; 
417,  Rice  culture. 

B.   AND   D.    AG.  — 8 


LESSON  XXV 
OATS 

Two  uses.  —  The  oat  is  a  cereal  grass  that  is  grown 
for  grain  or  hay.  If  it  is  raised  for  the  grain,  it  is 
harvested  and  threshed  like  wheat.  If  the  crop  is  to 
be  used  as  hay,  it  is  cut  while  green  and  harvested  like 
the  common  hay  crops.  Oat  hay  is  more  nutritious 
than  timothy  hay. 

Manner  of  growth.  —  The  seeds  are  borne  at  the 
top  of  the  stem  in  a  spray  or  panicle  somewhat  like  rice. 

The  plants  branch 
or  tiller  at  the  bot- 
tom like  wheat,  pro- 
ducing many  stems 
from  a  single  seed. 
Nearly  all  kinds  of 
oats  that  are  com- 
monly grown  have 
the  kernels  tightly 
inclosed  in  the 

OATS  IN  SHOCK  ..  , 

hulls.      There    are 

hull-less  oats  which  shell  out  when  they  are  threshed. 
The  two  great  classes  of  oats  are  the  bush  or  spreading 
oats,  and  the  side  or  mane  oats.  In  the  bush  oats  the 

114 


OATS 


n6 


OATS 


small  branchlets  in  the  head  which  bear  the  seeds 
spread  out  in  every  direction.  In  the  side  oats  the 
branchlets  are  all  on  one  side  of  the  head  like  the  mane 

of  a  horse  or  a  banner  in 
the  wind. 

Planting.  -  -  Winter  oats 
are  planted  in  the  fall 
and  harvested  the  following 
summer.  Spring  oats  are 
planted  in  the  spring  and 
are  grown  in  the  Northern 
states,  where  the  winters 
are  too  cold  for  oats  sown 
in  the  fall. 

Oats  like  a  cool  climate 
and  moist  soils,  so  they  are 
sown  in  the  spring  as  early 
as  possible.  The  seeds  may 
be  planted  from  one  to  five 
inches  deep,  but  they  do 
better  when  planted  shallow. 
From  one  to  three  bushels  of  seed  per  acre  are  either 
sown  broadcast  or  with  a  drill,  like  wheat.  It  is  always 
better  to  sow  the  seed  with  a  drill,  so  that  the  grains 
are  evenly  scattered  in  the  row  and  covered  with  soil. 

Oats  as  food.  —  Oats  are  considered  the  best  of  all 
grains  for  feeding  horses,  and  they  are  also  good  for 
other  kinds  of  stock.  For  human  food  the  hulls  are 
taken  off  the  grain  by  machinery,  and  the  kernels  are 


OAT  PANICLES 


OATS  117 

ground  or  rolled  into  oatmeal  that  is  used  as  a  break- 
fast food  and  other  food  articles.  Oatmeal  is  one  of 
the  chief  foods  of  Scotland. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  chief  uses  of  oats? 

2.  How  does  oat  hay  compare  in  nutritive  value  with  other 
forage  crops  ? 

3.  Are  oats  grown  in  your  locality  ?     If  so,  what  methods  are 
used  in  raising  this  crop  ? 

4.  Under  what  climatic  conditions  will  oats  thrive? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  careful  study  of  a  head  of  oats.     How  does  it 
differ  from  a  head  of  wheat  ?     Make  drawings. 

2.  Collect  samples  of  fine  grades  of  oats.     Keep  them  in 
bottles  properly  labeled. 

3.  Plant  twenty  or  thirty  grains  of  oats.     At  the  end  of  one 
week  dig  up  a  few  of  the  grains  and  note  the  temporary  roots. 
How  many  are  there?     A  week  later  dig  up  other  plants  and 
note  the  growth  of  permanent  roots.     Allow  the  others  to  con- 
tinue growing,  and  watch  the  development  of    tillers  or  new 
stems.     Make  drawings. 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  395,  Sixty-day  and  Kherson  oats;  420, 
Oats,  distribution  and  uses ;  424,  Oats,  growing  the  crop ;  436, 
Winter  oats  for  the  South. 


LESSON  XXVI 
BARLEY 

Many  kinds.  —  Barley  belongs  to  the  same  general 
tribe  of  grasses  as  wheat  and  rye.  Most  of  the  barleys 
have  the  grain  tightly  inclosed  in  thin  hulls,  and  a  long 
beard  at  the  tip  of  each  kernel. 
There  are  several  hundred  kinds  of 
barley,  with  greater  variation  in  the 
character  of  the  grain  than  any  other 
cereal. 

Range     of     climate.  —  Barley    is 
grown  in  more  parts  of   the  world 
than  any  other  kind  of   grain.     It 
will  mature  in  the  far  north,  where 
the  undersoil  remains  frozen  during 
the  summer ;    and  it  will  grow  well 
in  the  far  south.     Barley  will  stand 
more    drought    and     mature    more 
quickly  than  other  grains,  but  when 
the  plants  are  small  they  are  easily 
injured  by  too  much  wetness  or  dry- 
ness.     The  crop  requires  a  rich  soil  and  a  well-prepared 
seed  bed.     About  one  and  one  half   bushels  of   seed 
are  sown  to  the  acre. 

118 


BARLEY 


119 


Harvesting.  -  -  The  grain  should  be  quite  ripe  be- 
fore it  is  cut.  It  is  harvested  with  a  self-binder  and 
threshed  with  the  common  grain-threshing  machine. 
Barley  yields  from  thirty  to  forty  bushels  or  more  per 


FIELD  OF  RIPK  BARLF.Y 

acre.     Barley   in    the    hull   weighs   about    forty-eight 
pounds  per  bushel. 

Uses.  -  -  This  plant  is  supposed  to  have  come  from 
western  Asia.  For  many  hundreds  of  years,  it  was  the 
grain  from  which  civilized  man  made  his  bread.  In 


120  BARLEY 

modern  times,  wheat  has  become  the  most  important 
bread-making  cereal,  and  barley  is  but  little  used  for 
human  food.  About  the  only  form  in  which  barley  is 
now  used  as  human  food  is  the  pearl  barley  used  in 
soups.  This  is  made  by  taking  the  hulls  off  the  ker- 
nels with  special  machines.  The  principal  uses  of 
barley  are  as  food  for  stock  and  as  malt  for  beer.  As 
a  stock  food,  barley  is  very  nutritious  and  is  almost 
equal  to  corn.  It  may  be  fed  whole  or  ground  into 
meal.  The  hull-less  barley  is  so  hard  that  it  must  be 
ground  or  soaked  before  it  is  fed. 

Malt.  —  In  making  beer  the  barley  is  malted  by 
germinating  the  grains.  In  the  sprouting  grains  the 
starch  is  changed  to  sugar,  which  is  then  dissolved  out 
of  the  grain  by  soaking  in  water.  After  the  sugar  has 
been  dissolved,  the  sprouted  barley  grains,  called  malt 
sprouts,  are  sold  for  stock  food. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  most  important  uses  of  barley  ? 

2.  What  are  the  leading  barley  states  of  the  United  States? 

3.  Is  barley  adapted  to  a  narrow  or  wide  range  of  climate  ? 

4.  What  are  the  leading  barley  countries  of  the  world  ?     (See 
Yearbook  of  Agriculture.) 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

i.  Plant  grains  of  barley  and  make  a  study  of  the  young 
plants,  similar  to  the  study  of  wheat  and  of  oats.  How  many 
temporary  roots  do  you  find  ?  Usually  barley  has  five  tempo- 


BARLEY  121 

rary  roots.    Note  the  development  of  permanent  roots  and  tillers. 
Make  drawings. 

2.    Make  a  careful  study  of  a  head  of  barley.     Draw. 


REFERENCES 


Farmers'  Bulletins:   427,  Barley  culture  in  Southern  states; 
443,  Barley:  growing  the  crop ;  518,  Winter  barley. 


LESSON  XXVII 
RYE 

A  hardy  cereal.  —  Rye  is  more  closely  related  to 
wheat  than  to  other  cereals.     The  seeds  are  longer 

and  more  nearly  round  than 
wheat  seeds.  The  straws  or 
stems  are  longer,  tougher, 
and  more  slender  than  wheat. 
Rye  usually  lives  only  one 
season,  but  sometimes  the 
roots  will  live  more  than  one 
year  and  produce  two  or 
more  crops  with  one  plant- 
ing. There  are  two  kinds  of 
rye  —  winter  or  fall  rye,  and 
spring  rye.  Compared  with 
other  grains,  there  are  few 
varieties  of  rye.  It  is  a  very 
hardy  plant  and  may  be 
grown  in  almost  any  climate, 
and  it  is  an  important  crop 
in  far  northern  countries.  It  will  grow  on  poorer  soil 
and  stand  more  neglect  than  other  cereals ;  but,  to 
secure  the  highest  yield,  it  needs  good  soil  and  care. 
Rye  does  not  yield  such  heavy  crops  of  grain  as  barley. 


RYK  PLANT 


RYE 


123 


A  good  crop,  however,  produces  twenty  to  thirty  bushels 
per  acre.  A  bushel  of  rye  weighs  fifty-six  pounds.  From 
fifty  to  seventy-five  pounds  of  seed  are  sown  per  acre. 
Uses  of  the  straw.  —  Rye  is  grown  extensively  in 
parts  of  Europe  for  bread.  In  this  country  it  is  raised 
chiefly  for  the  straw,  which,  if  well  grown  and  cared 


FIELD  OF  Rvi:  IN  THK  SHOCK 

for,  is  worth  as  much  per  acre  as  the  grain.  Rye  straw 
is  more  prized  than  any  other  as  bedding  for  horses 
and  other  stock.  It  is  also  used  to  manufacture  hats, 
mats,  and  lemonade  straws.  One  company  in  Xew 
York  buys  each  year  more  than  $25,000  of  rye  straw 
to  make  lemonade  straws.  To  save  the  straw,  it  is 
tied  in  straight  bundles,  and  these  are  bound  together 
in  bales  to  be  sent  to  market.  A  good  yield  is  a  ton 


124  RYE 

of  straw  per  acre.  Rye  is  often  grown  for  hay  and 
pasture,  and  also  as  a  crop  to  plow  under  to  improve 
the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

Uses  of  the  grain.  -  -  The  rye  grain  is  tough,  and 
harder  to  grind  than  other  grain,  and 'is  not  liked  so 
well  by  stock  as  other  grains.  Rye  is  better  for  swine 
than  for  other  stock.  Distillers  buy  a  part  of  the 
grain  crop  for  the  production  of  alcoholic  liquors. 
After  fermentation  has  converted  a  part  of  the  starch 
and  sugar  into  alcohol,  the  refuse  is  fed  to  stock.  Rye 
is  also  used  to  make  breakfast  foods. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  does  rye  differ  from  wheat  ? 

2.  What  uses  are  made  of  rye  ? 

3.  What  are  the  leading  rye  countries  of  the  world?     (See 
Yearbook  of  Agriculture.) 

4.  Is  rye  grown  in  the  section  of  country  in  which  you  live  ? 
If  so,  what  farm  methods  are  used  in  raising  this  crop  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  Obtain  one  or  more  samples  of  rye  and  add  to  your  col- 
lection of  grains. 

2.  Make  a  careful  study  of  a  head  of  rye.     Compare  it  with 
the  heads  of  other  grain  plants. 

3.  Plant  several  grains  of  rye  in  a  pot  of  earth  and  study  the 
young  plants  at  different  stages  of  growth.     How  many  tem- 
porary roots  are  there?    Note  the  growth  of  permanent  roots 

and  tillers. 

REFERENCES 

If  you  live  in  a  state  that  raises  a  considerable  quantity  of 
rye,  write  to  your  Agricultural  College  for  bulletins  on  this  crop. 


LESSON  XXVIII 
COTTON 

An  important  fiber.  —  Cotton  is  raised  for  the  long 
fine  hairs  or  fibers,  called  lint,  which  grow  on  the 
seeds  of  the  shrubby  plant.  The  fibers  are  used  to 
make  clothing ;  and  cotton  is  the  most  important  fiber 


COTTON  FIELD 

crop  in  the  world.  Cotton  grows  in  hot,  moist,  fertile 
regions.  Our  Southern  states  form  the  cotton  belt 
of  the  United  States.  In  these  states,  cotton  is  the 

125 


126 


COTTON 


most  important  crop ;  and  this  section  produces  about 
two  thirds  of  the  entire  cotton  crop  of  the  world. 

Planting.  —  Cotton  is  grown  in  a  three-course  ro- 
tation, with  a  grain  crop  and  cowpeas  or  clover  as  the 
two  other  crops.  The  seeds  are  planted  in  drill  rows 
or  hills,  much  as  corn  is  planted,  using  one  to  three 
bushels  of  seed  per  acre.  After  the  plants  come  up, 


COTTON  GIN  AND  COMPRESS 

they  are  thinned  with  a  hoe  by  chopping  out  the  plants 
not  wanted,  leaving  one  plant  in  a  place,  from  twelve 
to  twenty  inches  apart.  The  crop  is  given  a  shallow 
cultivation  with  a  kind  of  shovel  plow  called  a  sweep 
which  kills  weeds,  keeps  the  soil  loose,  and  saves  the 
moisture. 

Picking  cotton.  —  When  the  seed  pods  or  cotton 
bolls  burst  open  and  expose  the  white  masses  of  fibers, 
the  cotton  is  picked  by  hand.  One  person  can  pick 


COTTON 


127 


from  100  to  500  pounds  in  a  day.  All  the  pods  do  not 
ripen  at  once,  and  it  usually  requires  about  four 
months  to  harvest  the  crop. 

The  fiber  and  the  seed.  —  After  the  cotton  is  picked, 
it  is  hauled  to  the  gin  and  compress.  The  cotton  gin 
removes  the  seeds  from  the  fibers  and  the  cotton  is 
pressed  into  bales  of  about  500 
pounds  each.  A  good  yield  of 
cotton  is  from  one  to  one  and 
one  half  bales  per  acre.  Before 
the  cotton  gin  was  made,  women 

i       ,  .,  ,  .  COTTON   PRODUCTS  OF  UNITED 

and     Children     Spent     their     eve-  STATES  AND   REST   OF   THE 

nings  picking  the  cotton  off  the 

seeds  by  hand ;  and  between  supper  and  bedtime,  each 
was  expected  to  pick  enough  to  fill  one  of  his  shoes  with 
the  seeds.  This  would  give  about  four  pounds  of 
separated  cotton.  The  cotton  gin  made  possible  the 
growing  of  this  crop  on  a  large  scale,  just  as  the  reaper 
made  it  possible  to  grow  large  crops  of  wheat,  oats, 
and  other  cereals. 

Blinds.  -  -  There  are  two  kinds  of  cotton  grown  in 
the  United  States.  The  sea-island  cotton  has  the 
longest,  toughest,  and  finest  fiber ;  while  the  upland 
cotton  has  shorter  fibers,  but  the  bolls  are  larger  and 
produce  more  cotton.  There  are  two  kinds  of  upland 
cotton,  —  the  long  staple  and  short  staple  varieties. 
The  upland  cotton  is  the  kind  more  generally  cultivated, 
while  the  sea-island  cotton  is  grown  on  the  coast  plain 
of  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida. 


128  COTTON 

The  seed.  —  Cottonseed  oil  manufactured  from  the 
seed  is  perhaps  the  most  profitable  part  of  the  crop. 
About  forty  gallons  are  obtained  from  one  ton  of  seed, 
when  it  is  put  under  high  pressure.  The  cottonseed 
oil  is  used  for  human  food,  and  for  making  soap.  The 
seed  cake,  which  is  left  after  the  oil  has  been  pressed 
out,  is  ground  into  cottonseed  meal,  which  is  a  valuable 
food  for  stock,  and  also  a  soil  fertilizer. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  rank  of  the  United  States  as  a  cotton-pro- 
ducing country  ? 

2.  Where  is  the  cotton  belt  of  the  United  States  ? 

3.  What  climatic  conditions  are  required  by  cotton  ? 

4.  What  kinds  of  cotton  are  grown  in  the  United  States  ? 

5.  What  methods  are  used  in  planting,  cultivating,  and  har- 
vesting cotton  ? 

6.  What  products  are  made  from  the  seeds  of  cotton  ? 

7.  What  important  historical  effect  resulted  from  the  inven- 
tion of  the  cotton  gin  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  Secure  a  branch  of  a  cotton  plant,  with  one  or  more  bolls 
attached;   secure  also  samples  of  cotton,  cotton  cloth,  cotton- 
seed oil,  and  cottonseed  meal. 

2.  Germinate  a  number  of  cotton  seeds  and  make  a  study  of 
the  young  plants. 

REFERENCES 

If  you  live  in  a  cotton  state,  write  to  the  Agricultural  College 
in  your  state  for  bulletins  on  cotton  growing. 


COTTON  129 

Farmers'  Bulletins :  36,  Cotton  seed  and  its  products ;  47,  In- 
sects affecting  cotton  plant ;  48,  Manuring  of  cotton  :  217,  Es- 
sential steps  in  securing  an  early  crop  of  cotton ;  285,  Advan- 
tage of  planting  heavy  cottonseed ;  286,  Comparative  value  of 
whole  cotton  seed  and  cottonseed  meal  in  fertilizing  cotton ;  290, 
Cotton  boll  worm,  summary  of  it*  life  history  and  habits ;  302, 
Sea- island  cotton,  its  culture,  improvement,  and  diseases;  314, 
Method  of  breeding  cotton  to  escape  boll- weevil  damage: 
326,  Building  up  run-down  cotton  plantation ;  364,  Profitable 
cotton  farm;  512,  The  boll- weevil  problem. 


B.  A\T>  P.  AG. O 


LESSON  XXIX 
FLAX,   HEMP,   AND   OTHER  FIBER   PLANTS 

The  flax  plant.  —  All  of  you  have  seen  linen ;  but 
how  many  of  you  have  seen  the  plant  from  which  come 
the  fibers  that  are  woven  iiito  linen  cloth?  Do  you 
know  that  linen  and  linseed  oil  are  products  of  the 
flax  plant?  The  fibers  come  from  the  stems,  and 
the  oil  is  pressed  from  the  flax  seed.  In  the  days 
of  the  pioneers  each  family  grew  a  patch  of  flax 
to  furnish  the  linen  fibers  which  were  spun  and  woven 
into  homemade  cloth. 

You  have  likewise  seen  twine  and  rope,  made  of 
hemp  and  other  fibers ;  but  not  many  of  you  have 
seen  the  plants  which  furnish  these  fibers. 

Flax  and  hemp  are  important  fiber  crops,  but  they 
are  not  grown  extensively  in  the  United  States.  In 
Europe  flax  is  grown  mainly  for  its  fiber,  but  in  the 
United  States  it  is  grown  chiefly  for  the  oil.  As  cotton 
is  our  most  important  fiber  plant,  and  also  yields  oil, 
so  flax  is  our  most  important  oil  plant,  and  also  yields 
valuable  fiber. 

Planting.  —  Flax  is  an  annual  plant,  always  grown 
from  the  seeds  which  are  sown  broadcast  or  with  a 
drill,  like  other  small  grains.  It  is  planted  in  the 

130 


FLAX,   HEMP,   AND   OTHER   FIBER    PLANTS      131 


spring,  after  danger  of  frost  is  over.  Where  grown 
for  the  seed,  from  fourteen  to  twenty  pounds  of  seed 
are  sown  per  acre ;  and  where  raised  for  the  fiber, 
about  forty  pounds 
per  acre  are  sown 
broadcast  in  order 
to  make  the  plants 
grow  straight  and 
tall.  Flax  will 
grow  in  almost 
any  kind  of  soil, 
but  rich  soils  are 
required  to  pro- 
duce large  yields 
of  fiber  and  seed. 

Harvesting. 
The  crop  matures 
in  about  one  hun- 
dred    days     from 
the   time  of    sow- 
ing.    It  is  usually 
harvested   with    a 
reaper,  leaving  the 
bundles  without  tying,  or  tying  and  standing  them  in 
loose  shocks  to  dry  out  before  threshing. 

Uses  of  the  seed.  —  After  the  linseed  oil  is  pressed 
from  the  seed,  the  oil  cake  made  of  the  crushed  seeds 
is  used  as  food  for  stock.  This  oil  cake  or  meal  is  one 
of  the  most  important  stock  foods,  furnishing  both 


FIKLD  OF  FLAX 


132      FLAX,    HEMP,    AND   OTHER   FIBER   PLANTS 


nitrogenous  matter  and  fat  to  the  animals.     The  main 

use  of  linseed  oil  is  for  mixing  paints. 

The  fiber.  -  -  The  flax  fiber  is  separated  from  the 

woody  part  of  the  stems  by  soaking  the  straw  in  water 

for  one  or  two 
weeks,  or  until  the 
stems  are  soft. 
This  softening  of 
the  straw  by  mois- 
ture is  called  ret- 
ting. When  the 
retting  process  is 
complete,  the  straw 
is  taken  from  the 
water  and  spread 
out  to  dry,  after 
which  it  is  put 
through  machines 
which  break  the 
stems  and  separate 
the  fibers. 
Where  grown. 

~FlaX     IS      gr°Wn 

mainly       in       the 

Northwestern  states.     North  Dakota,  South  Dakota, 
Minnesota,  and  Montana  are  the  leading  states  in  flax 
production.     In  the  states  named  it  is  often  raised  as 
the  first  crop  on  plowed  sod  land. 
Hemp  yields  a  soft  fiber  from  the  inner  bark  of  the 


HEMP 


FLAX,   HEMP,   AND   OTHER   FIBER   PLANTS      133 

stem.  The  raising  of  this  crop  is  confined  mainly  to 
Kentucky  and  Missouri ;  and  it  is  generally  known  as 
Kentucky  hemp.  The  plant  is  an  annual  which  grows 
about  ten  feet  in  height,  and  is  raised  for  both  the  fiber 
and  seed. 

Uses  of  the  seed.  -  -  The  seed  is  used  for  bird  and 
poultry  food,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  oil  for  paint. 
When  grown  for  the  seed,  hemp  is  planted  and  culti- 
vated in  hills,  like  corn.  When  grown  for  the  fiber, 
the  seed  is  sown  with  a  wheat  drill,  sowing  both  ways 
and  using  about  a  bushel  of  seed  to  the  acre. 

Planting  and  harvesting.  —  In  Kentucky,  hemp  is 
sown  about  the  25th  of  April  and  is  ready  to  cut  about 
the  ist  of  September.  It  is  usually  cut  by  hand 
close  to  the  ground  in  order  to  get  the  whole  length  of 
the  stems.  After  cutting,  the  stalks  lie  in  the  field  for 
a  week  or  more  to  dry  out,  after  which  they  are  tied 
into  small  bundles  and  set  up  in  shocks.  The  fibers 
are  loosened  from  the  stalks  by  spreading  the  hemp  on 
the  field  and  leaving  it  for  one  or  two  months  in  winter 
so  that  the  moisture  and  frost  will  act  on  it.  The  pro- 
cess of  breaking  the  straw  and  separating  the  fiber  is 
usually  done  by  hand.  The  fiber  is  used  in  making 
burlap,  twine,  and  carpet. 

Twine.  —  A  very  large  amount  of  binder  twine  is 
used  in  harvesting  the  enormous  grain  crops  of  the 
United  States.  Most  of  the  binder  twine  is  made 
from  the  henequen  which  is  grown  in  Cuba  and  southern 
Mexico.  The  fibers  come  from  the  long  bayonet-shaped 


134     FLAX,   HEMP,   AND   OTHER   FIBER   PLANTS 

leaves  of  this  plant.  The  abaca,  a  plant  with  large 
leaves  growing  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  furnishes  the 
Manila  hemp  which  is  also  extensively  used  for  binder 
twine.  Ropes  also  are  made  from  these  fibers. 

Jute  is  a  valuable  fiber  plant,  raised  mostly  in  India. 
It  is  used  for  making  rope  and  coarse  fabrics.  In  the 
Philippines  a  variety  of  pineapple  is  grown  for  the 
fibers  in  the  leaves  which  are  woven  into  cloth.  Coco- 
nut fiber  is  used  for  making  ropes  and  sailcloth.  Raffia 
is  the  coarse  fiber  from  the  leaves  of  a  palm  tree. 

QUESTIONS 

1 .  What  is  the  name  of  the  cloth  that  is  made  of  flax  fibers  ? 
What  part  of  the  flax  plant  is  used  to  make  fibers  ? 

2.  Besides  the  fiber,  flax  yields  what  other  important  product  ? 

3.  What  are  the  leading  flax  states  of  the  United  States  ? 

4.  How  is  the  flax  crop  grown  ? 

5.  What  products  are  obtained  from  the  hemp  plant  ? 

6.  What  fiber  plants  are  grown  in  tropical  countries  ? 

7.  What  two  plants  furnish  nearly  all  the  fibers  for  binder 
twine  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  Obtain  samples  of  tow  from  flax  and  hemp,   sisal  and 
Manila  hemp,  and  cloth  made  from  the  fibers  of  flax,  hemp,  and 
jute. 

2.  Crush  a  flaxseed  on  a  sheet  of  paper  and  note  its  oily 
character.     Examine  samples  of  linseed  oil,  flaxseed  meal,  and 
oil  cake. 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins  :   274,  Flax  culture. 

Yearbook  of  Agriculture :  1911,  Fibers  used  for  binder  twine, 
pp.  193-200. 


LESSON   XXX 
SUGAR   PLANTS 

Sugar  is  found  in  all  plants  and  in  all  parts  of  plants. 
It  is  found  in  the  sap  of  trees  and  grasses,  in  the  roots 
of  many  plants,  and  gives  sweetness  to  fruits  and  seeds. 


SUGAR  CANE 

Sugar  plants  are  those  which  have  so  much  sugar  stored 
in  parts  of  them  that  it  may  be  extracted  at  a  profit. 
Honey  plants  are  those  that  have  sweet  nectar  in  the 
blossoms,  which  is  used  by  the  bees  to  make  honey. 
Sugar  cane,  sugar  beets,  sweet  sorghum,  and  maple 
trees  are  the  sugar  plants  which  are  raised  by  farmers 
to  furnish  sugar  and  sirup. 

'35 


136 


SUGAR   PLANTS 


Sugar  cane  is  one  of  the  most  important  crops  in 
many  of  the  hot  regions  of  the  world.  Louisiana  is 
by  far  the  leading  sugar  state  of  our  own  country. 
Large  quantities  are  grown  in  Hawaii,  Cuba,  Porto 
Rico,  India,  and  Java.  The  sugar  cane  is  a  giant 
grass,  which  sometimes  grows  thirty  feet  high.  The 
sugar  is  manufactured  from  the  cane  stalks  after  the 
leaves  and  tops  have  been  removed. 

Planting.  -  -  The  plants  are  propagated  by  planting 
the  upper  part  of  the  stems  which  have  buds  that  grow 
into  new  plants.  These  pieces  of  stems  for  planting 


FIELD  OF  SUGAR  BEETS 


are  called  seed  cane.  The  soil  should  be  plowed  deep 
for  cane,  which  is  planted  in  rows  or  hills,  like  corn,  and 
cultivated  the  same  as  for  corn,  until  the  cane  plants 


SUGAR   PLANTS  137 

are  large  enough  to  shade  the  ground.  The  growing 
of  the  sugar  cane  crop  requires  a  large  amount  of  hand 
labor.  The  planting,  the  stripping  off  the  leaves,  and 
the  cutting  of  the  cane  stalks  are  done  by  hand. 

Raw  sugar.  —  After  the  cane  is  cut,  it  is  hauled  to 
the  mills,  where  the  juice  is  pressed  out  of  the  stems 
and  then  boiled  in  vacuum  pans  until  the  crude  or  raw 
sugar  is  obtained.  The  raw  sugar  is  then  shipped  to 
refineries,  where  it  is  changed  by  a  number  of  com- 
plicated processes  into  refined  sugar. 

Sweet  sorghum  contains  much  sugar  in  the  juice 
and  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  sirup  and  molasses. 
Sugar  can  be  made  from  sorghum  sirup,  but  this  is 
not  done  in  the  United  States. 

Beet  sugar.  —  During  the  last  few  years  sugar  beets 
have  supplied  nearly  half  of  the  world's  sugar  supply. 
The  leading  countries  in  the  production  of  beet  sugar 
are  Germany,  Russia,  and  Austria-Hungary.  In  the 
United  States  the  sugar  beet  is  grown  in  the  Western  and 
Northern  states.  Colorado,  California,  and  Michigan 
are  the  leading  states  in  the  yield  of  beet  sugar. 

Sugar  beets  are  raised  from  the  seed,  which  is  sown 
with  drills  in  the  spring.  The  rows  are  about  twenty 
inches  apart,  and  the  small  seeds  are  sown  close  together, 
using  about  twenty  pounds  of  seed  per  acre.  After 
the  plants  come  up  they  are  thinned  out  until  they 
stand  eight  or  ten  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  The  soil 
is  tilled  with  horse  cultivators,  which  work  two  to  four 
rows  at  a  time.  The  sugar  beets  ripen  in  September 


138  SUGAR   PLANTS 

or  October,  and  are  then  plowed  up  with  a  special  beet 
plow.     The  tops  are  cut  off,  and  the  roots  are  sent  to 


BEET  SUGAR  FACTORY 


the  factory.     From  fifteen  to  twenty-five  tons  of  beets 
form  the  usual  yield  per  acre. 

Maple  sugar.  —  The  delicious  maple  sugar  is  made 
from  the  sap  of  the  sugar  maple  and  red  maple  trees. 
Early  in  the  spring,  when  the  sap  begins  to  flow,  the 
trees  are  tapped  by  boring  a  hole  in  the  trunk  and 


SUGAR    PLANTS 


139 


putting  in  a  spout  called  a  spile.  A  bucket  hangs  from 
the  spile  and  catches  the  sap  as  it  runs  out.  The 
maple  sap,  which  contains  about  3  per  cent  of  sugar, 
is  boiled  down  into  a  thick  sirup  or  made  into  sugar. 
A  cheaper  sirup  is  made  from  glucose,  which  is  manu- 
factured from  corn  starch ;  and  this  has  largely  taken 
the  place  of  the  better  kinds  of  sirup  on  the  market. 


GATHERING  MAPLK  SAP 
QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  two  most  important  sugar  plants?     Name 
others. 

2.  What  are  the  leading  sugar-producing   countries  of   the 
world  ? 

3.  What  methods  are  used  in  growing  sugar  cane  ? 

4.  What  are  the  main  steps  in  the  manufacture  of  cane  sugar  ? 

5.  How  are  sugar  beets  raised? 


140  SUGAR   PLANTS 

6.  What  states  of  the  United  States  lead  in  the  production  of 
sugar  beets?  What  is  the  leading  sugar-beet  country  of  the 
world  ?  (See  Yearbook  of  Agriculture.) 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  If  you  live  where  sugar  cane  is  raised,  write  a  composition 
on  the  growing  of  this  crop. 

2.  If  you  live  where  sugar  beets  are  raised,  write  a  composi- 
tion on  the  growing  of  this  crop,  and  the  manufacture  of  beet 
sugar. 

3.  Explain  the  process  of  making  maple  sirup,  if  you  live  in 
a  section  of  the  country  that  produces  this  article. 

REFERENCES 

If  you  live  in  a  state  that  raises  sugar  cane  or  sugar  beets, 
write  to  your  Agricultural  College  for  bulletins  on  sugar  cane  or 
sugar  beets. 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  52,  Sugar  beet,  culture,  seed  develop- 
ment, manufacture,  and  statistics;  93,  Sugar  as  food;  252, 
Maple  sugar  and  sirup;  477,  Sorghum  sirup  manufacture;  517, 
The  production  of  maple  sirup  and  sugar. 


LESSON   XXXI 


POTATOES 

Seed  potatoes.  -  -  The  potato  is  the  most  important 
of  the  so-called  vegetables.  Potatoes  are  classed  as 
a  root  crop  although  they  are  really  underground  stems. 
In  the  underground  stem,  called  tubers,  the  plants 
store  up  starch  in  a  form  that  is  good  to  eat.  The  true 
seeds  of  the  potato  plant  are  borne  in  seed-balls  at  the 
top  of  the  stems.  These  seeds  are  used  only  in  breeding 
work  to  produce  new  varieties 
of  potatoes.  The  eyes  on  po- 
tatoes are  buds  which  grow, 
when  planted,  and  produce 
new  potatoes  like  the  kind 
planted.  Seed  potatoes  should 
be  selected  from  the  most 
prolific  hills  ;  they  should  be 
true  to  type  and  free  from 
any  appearance  of  disease. 
The  seed  potatoes  may  be 
planted  \vhole,  or  they  may 
be  cut  into  pieces  before  planting,  each  piece  having 
one  or  two  eyes. 

Planting.  —  Potatoes  are  raised  in  crop  rotations  of 
alfalfa  or  clover  and  small  grains  as  the  other  two  crops. 
They  do  better  in  a  cool  climate ;  and  contrary  to 


POTATO  PLANT  WITH  TI-BKRS 


141 


142 


POTATOES 


general  belief,  they  will  grow  with  less  moisture  than 
many  other  crops.  They  are  planted  in  the  spring,  in 
rows  about  three  feet  apart  and  from  eight  to  eighteen 
inches  apart  in  the  rows.  They  usually  do  best  on  a 
well-drained,  deeply  tilled,  mellow,  and  rich  loam  soil. 

They  are  planted  by 
hand  or  with  a  potato 
planter  and  covered 
about  four  inches  deep. 
The  soil  is  kept  well 
stirred  until  the  plants 
are  too  large  for  the 
cultivator  to  pass  be- 
tween the  rows  with- 
out injuring  them.  In 
the  fall  when  the  po- 
tatoes are  ripe,  and 
before  danger  of  freez- 
ing in  the  ground,  they 
are  dug  with  a  potato 
fork  or  with  a  potato-digging  machine.  They  are  then 
picked  up,  sorted,  and  sacked  for  market.  Potatoes 
are  kept  through  the  winter  by  being  stored  in  cellars, 
where  they  are  safe  from  freezing. 

Varieties.  -  -  There  are  many  varieties  of  potatoes, 
differing  in  color,  shape,  table  qualities,  and  time  of 
planting.  The  two  great  classes,  depending  on  the  time 
of  planting  and  harvesting,  are  early  potatoes  and  late 
potatoes. 


POTATO  DIGGZR 


POTATOES 


143 


Uses.  -  -  The  great  use  of  potatoes  is  to  serve  as 
a  food  for  man.  They  are  also  used  as  a  stock 
food  and  for  the  manufacture  of  starch  and  alcohol. 
The  vines  are  of  no  value  except  to  be  plowed  into  the 
soil  to  increase  its  fertility. 

Sweet  potatoes.  —  In  the  South  sweet  potatoes  are 
an  important  crop.  In  the  North  they  do  not  thrive 


GATHERING  POTATO  CRO 


unless  given  special  attention.  The  parts  of  the  sweet 
potato  plant  that  are  used  for  food  are  the  fleshy  roots 
which  have  large  amounts  of  starch  and  sugar  stored 
in  them.  Several  roots  branch  from  the  crown  of  the 
plant,  and  these  become  thickened  and  fles'iy  for  a 
length  of  a  few  inches  or  a  foot  or  more.  They  con- 
tain enough  sugar  to  give  them  a  sweet  taste. 

Planting.  -  -  The  sweet  potato  is  the  one  root  crop 
for  which  shallow  plowing  is  practiced.     On  deeply 


144 


POTATOES 


plowed  lands,  in  which  the  soil  is  soft  and  loose,  the 
fleshy  roots  are  apt  to  grow  too  long,  and  not  be  large 
enough  in  diameter,  so  the  land  for  sweet  potatoes  is 
usually  plowed  only  five  or  six  inches  deep.  Sweet 
potatoes  do  best  on  light,  sandy  soil  that  is  warm  and 

moist.  About  a  month 
before  the  time  to  set 
out  the  plants,  they  are 
started  by  placing  the 
roots  in  a  hotbed  and 
covering  them  with 
about  two  inches  of 
soil.  The  young  plants, 
which  grow  up  from 
the  roots,  are  pulled  off 
when  they  are  four  to 
six  inches  high  and 
transplanted  to  the 
field.  The  field  is  usu- 
ally plowed  into  fur- 
rows, and  the  plants 
set  out  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  either  by  hand 
or  by  a  transplanting  machine,  setting  them  about 
twenty  inches  apart  in  rows,  from  two  to  three  feet 
apart. 

Cuttings.  —  Sometimes  the  crop  is  grown  through 
the  propagation  of  the  new  plants  by  cuttings  or  slips. 
Pieces  of  the  vine,  from  one  to  two  feet  long,  are  cut  off 
and  planted  in  the  soil,  the  same  as  the  young  plants 


SWEET  POTATOES 


POTATOES  145 

which  are  grown  from  the  roots.  Where  the  season  is 
long  enough,  this  method  is  preferred  because  the  roots 
are  many  times  affected  with  diseases,  and  these  are 
avoided  by  using  the  slips. 

Cultivation.  —  After  the  plants  have  started  to 
grow,  the  ridges  between  the  rows  are  cultivated  down 
to  level  the  field  and  cover  the  vines  to  a  greater  depth. 
The  ground  is  tilled  to  keep  the  top  loose,  to  kill  weeds, 
and  save  moisture.  Sweet  potatoes  are  harvested  by 
plowing  or  digging  out  the  roots  in  the  fall,  before  dan- 
ger of  frost.  They  are  allowed  to  lie  on  the  top  of  the 
ground  in  the  sun  for  a  few  hours,  until  they  are  dry, 
when  they  are  picked  up  into  baskets  and  packed  into 
barrels  to  send  to  market,  or  are  stored  in  houses  built 
to  keep  them  through  the  winter. 

Uses.  —  Sweet  potatoes  are  used  for  human  food, 
for  stock  food,  for  the  manufacture  of  alcohol,  and  for 
other  purposes.  They  make  a  delicious  vegetable 
to  serve  with  meats.  They  are  more  extensively  grown 
in  the  United  States  than  in  other  countries. 


QUESTIONS 

1 .  How  are  potatoes  propagated  ? 

2.  What  soil  conditions  are  best  for  potatoes  ? 

3.  Under  what  climatic  conditions  do  potatoes  grow  ? 

4.  What  are  the  five  leading  potato  states  ?     (See  Yearbook 
of  Agriculture.) 

5.  What  methods  are  used  in  growing  potatoes  in  the  section 
in  which  you  live?     What  are   the  varieties  most  generally 
raised  ? 


B.    AND    D.    AG. 


146  POTATOES 

6.  What  are  the  chief  uses  of  potatoes  ? 

7.  What  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  do  sweet  potatoes 
require  ? 

8.  How  are  sweet  potatoes  grown  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  Place  a  potato  in  a  warm,  moist  place   and  watch  the 
sprouting  of  the  eyes  or  buds. 

2.  Cut  a  potato  into  several  pieces,  in  such  a  way  that  each 
piece  has  one  or  two  eyes.     Plant  these  pieces  in  the  ground  or 
in  a  box  of  earth.     From  time  to  time  pull  up  a  plant  to  note 
the  growth  of  roots  and  tubers.     How  long  after  planting  do 
young  tubers  appear? 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  35,  Potato  culture;  295,  Potatoes  and 
other  root  crops  as  food;  324,  Sweet  potatoes;  365,  Farm 
management  in  northern  potato-growing  sections ;  386,  Potato 
culture  on  irrigated  farms  of  the  West;  407,  Potato  as  truck 
crop ;  410,  Potato  culls  as  source  of  industrial  alcohol ;  520, 
Storage  and  marketing  sweet  potatoes. 


LESSON   XXXII 
MELONS,    PUMPKINS,  AND    CUCUMBERS 

Cultivation.  —  Watermelons,  muskmelons,  pumpkins, 
squashes,  cucumbers,  and  gourds  belong  to  the  gourd 
family.  All  of  them  except  gourds  are  cultivated  as  field 
or  garden  crops,  and  in  the(same  general  way.  These 
vine  crops  are  grown  from  seeds,  planted  in  the  spring, 
after  the  weather  becomes  warm.  They  are  planted 
in  hills  from  four  to  seven  feet  apart  each  way,  and  to 
a  depth  of  one  inch  or  less.  They  like  rich  loam  soils, 
and  long,  hot  seasons.  The  seeds  of  these  vines  retain 
vitality  longer  than  most  seeds,  and  they  germinate 
better  after  two  or  three  years  than  when  fresh. 

Watermelons  have  been  prized  as  human  food  for 
more  than  four  thousand  years ;  and  no  doubt  the 
ancient  Egyptian  farmer  took  pride  in  having  large, 
ripe  melons  to  share  with  his  friends  just  as  we  do  to-day. 
Watermelon  seeds  form  quite  an  article  of  food  in 
China ;  and  in  Africa  there  is  a  vine  whose  fruit  has 
large,  flat  seeds  that  are  eaten  as  we  eat  nuts.  While 
watermelons  grow  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United 
States,  yet  they  do  best  in  the  warm,  sandy  loams  of 
the  southern  states. 

147 


I48     MELONS,    PUMPKINS,   AND    CUCUMBERS 

Muskmelons  are  more  easily  grown  than  water- 
melons. The  cantaloupes  are  furrowed,  hard-rind 
melons,  while  the  "  nutmegs  "  are  netted,  soft-rind 
muskmelons. 


MUSKMELONS 

Pumpkins  and  squashes  are  raised  for  human  food 
and  also  for  stock  food.  As  stock  food  they  are  often 
profitable  crops,  yielding  as  much  as  thirty  tons  per 
acre.  The  field  pumpkin  is  often  grown  with  corn ; 
and  when  the  corn  is  cut  and  shocked,  the  ground  may 
be  almost  yellow  with  ripe  pumpkins.  They  are  used 


MELONS,   PUMPKINS,   AND   CUCUMBERS       149 

for  making  pumpkin  pies ;  and  the  canning  of  pump- 
kins for  winter  use  is  an  important  part  of  the  work  in 
canning  factories. 

Uses.  -  -  The  squashes  are  cooked  either  green  or 
ripe  as  a  table  vegetable,  and  the  sweet  varieties  are 
used  for  pies.  They  are  also  fed  to  hogs  and  cattle. 
Squashes  occasionally  grow  to  enormous  size,  some 
weighing  over  300  pounds. 

Cucumbers  are  a  standard  garden  vegetable,  and 
are  eaten  fresh  or  pickled  in  salt  or  vinegar.  Gourds 
are  grown  in  this  country  mainly  as  curiosities. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  crop  plants  belong  to  the  gourd  family? 

2.  What  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  are  required  by  water- 
melons ? 

3.  How  are  pumpkins  grown?    What  are  the  uses  of  this 
crop? 

4.  How  does  a  cantaloupe  differ  from  a  nutmeg  muskmelon  ? 

5.  What  uses  are  made  of  squashes  ?    Of  cucumbers  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

i.   Place  several  seeds  of  each  of  this  group  of  plants  on  a  plate 
germinator  and  make  a  study  of  the  seedlings  of  each  kind. 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins:    231,  Spraying  for  cucumber  and  melon 
diseases;   254,  Cucumbers. 


LESSON  XXXIII 


TOBACCO 

Planting.  -  -  Tobacco  seed  is  planted  in  beds  located 
in  warm,  well-drained  spots  with  rich,  loose  soil.     Brush 

or  other  wood  is 
burned  on  the  bed 
to  make  the  soil 
loose  and  enrich 
it  with  ashes.  In 
some  localities,  in- 
stead of  using 
wood,  the  soil  is 
heated  by  covering 
the  bed  with  a  large 
pan  and  applying 
steam.  Whatever 
the  process,  the 
chief  advantage  of 
heating  is  that  it 
kills  weed  seeds, 
bacteria,  and  fungi 
in  the  soil.  After 

TOBACCO  PLANT  , 

the  seed  is  sown, 

boards  are  placed  on  edge  around  the  beds  and  muslin 
is  stretched  over  to  keep  in  the  heat. 


TOBACCO 


Cultivation.  -  -  The  tobacco  fields  are  plowed  early 
in  the  spring  and  made  loose  and  mellow  by  har- 
rowing. When  the 
plants  in  the  beds 
are  a  few  inches 
high  they  are  taken 
up  and  set  out 
in  rows  by  hand 
or  with  a  planter. 
After  planting,  the 
ground  is  cultivated 
until  the  plants  are 
too  large  for  the 
horses  to  pass  be- 
tween the  rows. 

Suckers. — When 
the  plants  reach  a 
height  of  about 
two  feet,  and  have 
a  dozen  or  more 

FIF.LD  OF  TOBACCO 

leaves,  the  tops  are 

cut  off  to  cause  the  leaves  to  grow  larger.  After  the 
tops  are  removed,  little  suckers  grow  out  from  the  stalks 
just  above  the  bases  of  the  leaves ;  and  in  order  to 
secure  large  leaves  of  good  quality,  the  farmer  must 
remove  these  suckers,  which  would  take  up  the  food 
needed  by  the  leaves.  The  farmer  must  also  go  over 
the  tobacco  field  to  remove  the  large  green  tobacco 
worms  which  feed  upon  the  leaves. 


152 


TOBACCO 


Harvesting.  —  In  the  fall,  when  the  leaves  begin  to 
turn  brown,  the  farmer  splits  each  tobacco  stalk  with 
a  sharp  blade  down  from  the  top  to  within  three  or 
four  inches  of  the  ground,  and  then  cuts  off  the  stalk 
at  the  top  of  the  ground.  Several  of  the  cut  plants 


CURING  HOUSE  FOR  TOBACCO 

are  hung  upside  down  upon  a  tobacco  stick  to  cure. 
In  a  few  hours,  or  a  day  or  two,  the  tobacco  is  ready  to 
be  taken  to  well-ventilated  barns,  where  the  curing  is 
completed. 

Marketing.  —  When  the  farmer  is  ready  to  market 
his  crop,  he  usually  strips  the  leaves  from  the  stalks, 
and  stores  them  in  barrels,  being  careful  that  the  proper 
amount  of  moisture  is  present  in  the  leaves. 


TOBACCO  153 

In  recent  years  the  average  acreage  of  tobacco  is 
about  one  million  acres,  or  one  third  the  acreage  of 
potatoes.  The  value  of  the  tobacco  crop  is  less  than 
half  that  of  potatoes.  The  leading  tobacco  states  are 
Kentucky,  North  Carolina,  Virginia,  Ohio,  Tennessee, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Wisconsin.  The  Connecticut  valley 
is  also  an  important  tobacco  region. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  is  the  seed  bed  prepared  for  tobacco  seed  ? 

2.  When  are  the  young  plants  transplanted  ? 

3.  What  field  work  must  be  given  to  the  growing  crop  of 
tobacco  ? 

4.  How  is  tobacco  harvested  ? 

5.  What  are  the  leading  tobacco  states  ? 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  60,  Methods  of  curing  tobacco;  82, 
Culture  of  tobacco;  83,  Tobacco  soils;  120,  Principal  insects 
affecting  tobacco  plant;  343,  Cultivation  of  tobacco  in  Ken- 
tucky and  Tennessee;  416,  Production  of  cigar-leaf  tobacco  in 
Pennsylvania. 


LESSON  XXXIV 
VEGETABLE    GARDENING 

A  garden  is  a  small  piece  of  land  intensively  culti- 
vated. Here,  better  than  in  any  other  place,  one  may 
learn  many  lessons  about  crops  and  soils.  In  every 


VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

newly  settled  country  the  gardens  first  show  the  possi- 
bilities of  farming. 

Uses.  -  -  The  garden  may  be  made  the  most  inter- 
esting and  instructive  place  on  the  farm.  In  the  city, 
the  garden  on  the  city  lot  or  the  school  garden  affords 

154 


VEGETABLE   GARDENING 


155 


the  children  and  the  mothers  and  fathers  interesting 
and  enjoyable  recreation.  A  little  garden,  perhaps  not 
more  than  a  rod  square,  may  become  a  real  playground 
on  which  one  may  rest  the  mind  from  business  cares, 
keep  himself  in  close  touch  with  nature,  and  sup- 
ply himself  with 
good  things  to  eat. 
Growing  many  dif- 
ferent kinds  of 
plants  in  the  gar- 
den will  increase 
our  interest  and 
pleasure  in  it. 
There  is  great  en- 
joyment in  grow- 
ing some  rare 
plant,  or  in  grow- 
ing all  the  varieties 

USING  THE  WHEEL  HOE  IN  AN  ONION  PATCH 

of     some     garden 

vegetable,  or  in  producing  the  finest  specimens. 

Preparing  the  soil.  -  -  The  first  thing  of  importance 
is  to  make  the  soil  of  the  garden  as  fertile  as  possible. 
This  can  be  secured  by  careful  tillage  and  the  addition 
of  fertilizers.  If  the  soil  is  in  good  tilth  and  has  an 
abundance  of  organic  matter  and  mineral  plant  food, 
along  with  the  proper  conditions  of  moisture,  success 
is  almost  certain  with  nearly  all  of  the  things  we  may 
plant.  A  vegetable  garden  is  usually  one  of  the  most 
profitable  things  on  a  farm. 


156  VEGETABLE    GARDENING 

Long  rows.  —  It  is  best  to  plant  everything  in  long 
rows,  so  that  the  land  may  be  cultivated  with  a  horse 
cultivator  or  with  a  wheel  hoe.  Use  level  culture, 
except  where  ditches  may  be  necessary  to  irrigate  or 
drain  the  soil,  or  where  trenches  are  needed  for  banking 
up  celery  or  for  throwing  the  soil  toward  peanuts  or 
potatoes.  Hilling  up  corn,  tomatoes,  and  many  other 
crops  is  of  little  or  no  value  and  makes  unnecessary 
work.  Keep  out  the  weeds  and  never  leave  old  plants 
or  refuse,  like  cabbage  stumps,  in  the  garden  through 
the  winter.  They  may  have  insects  or  disease  organ- 
isms on  them  that  will  injure  the  next  crops. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  that  may  be  derived 
from  gardens  ? 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  most  important  rules  to  be  observed 
in  gardening  ? 

3.  What  vegetables   and   flowers  are   suitable   for  garden 
planting  ? 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  218,  School  garden;  220,  Tomatoes; 
255,  Home  vegetable  garden;  282,  Celery;  354,  Onion  culture; 
359,  Canning  vegetables  in  the  home;  433,  Cabbage;  434, 
Home  production  of  onion  seed  and  sets ;  460,  Frames  as  a  factor 
in  truck  growing;  488,  Diseases  of  cabbage  and  related  crops 
and  their  control. 


LESSON  XXXV 


CROPS    GROWN   FOR   BEVERAGES 

Coffee,  tea,  and  cacao  are  plants  that  are  grown 
almost  exclusively  for  beverages.  While  these  three 
beverages  are  extensively  used  in  the  United  States, 
yet  with  the  exception  of  a  small  amount  of  tea  grown 
in  some  of  the  southern  states,  the  plants  are  not  grown 
in  this  country. 

Coffee  is  the  seed  of  a  tree  that  in  cultivation  is 
kept  down  to  bush  size.  The  coffee  trees  grow  in 
moist,  warm  regions 
that  are  free  from 
frost,  and  ia  a 
soil  that  contains 
a  large  amount 
of  organic  matter. 
The  trees  come 
into  bearing  when 
they  are  six  years 
old,  and  continue 
to  bear  for  thirty 
or  forty  years. 

The  coffee  seeds  or  "  berries  "  are  inclosed  in  a  pulpy 
fruit,  and  after  they  are  picked,  the  first  thing  usually 

157 


COFFEK  BKANS  AND  BLOSSOMS 


158 


CROPS  GROWN  FOR  BEVERAGES 


done  is  to  remove  the  pulp  from  the  seeds.  Then  they 
are  cured  by  leaving  them  in  the  sun  for  several  days. 
When  cured  the  two  outer  coverings  are  removed  and 
the  coffee  is  packed  for  shipment.  Sometimes  the 
coffee  is  dried  before  the  pulp  is  removed  and  the  pulp 
and  coverings  are  removed  afterwards. 

About  two  thirds  of  the  coffee  crop  is  grown  in  Brazil. 
Large  quantities  are  grown  in  Central  America,  the 
West  Indies,  and  Java. 


PICKING  TEA  IN  JAPAN 


Tea  is  the  dried  leaves  of  an  evergreen  shrub  or  small 
tree  that  grows  mainly  in  China,  Japan,  India,  and 


CROPS    GROWN   FOR   BEVERAGES 


159 


Java.  The  plants  require  a  warm,  moist  climate,  and 
a  soil  with  good  drainage  and  a  large  amount  of  organic 
matter.  The  regu- 
lar gathering  of  the 
leaves  does  not  be- 
gin until  the  shrub 
is  five  years  old, 
although  a  small 
amount  of  leaves 
may  be  taken  in  the 
third  year.  The 
leaves  are  picked 
several  times  a 
year.  After  pick- 
ing, the  leaves  are 
dried  and  rolled, 
then  dried  again 
and  packed  for  sale. 

Cacao  is  the  name 
of  the  tree  whose  seeds  are  used  to  make  cocoa  and 
chocolate.  In  the  pods  of  this  tree  from  thirty  to  fifty 
nuts  or  beans  are  inclosed  in  a  pulpy  mass.  After  the 
cacao  beans  are  removed  from  the  pods,  they  undergo 
a  fermentation  process  and  are  then  dried.  Then  the 
beans  are  shipped  to  factories  in  Europe  and  the 
United  States,  and  used  to  make  cocoa  and  chocolate. 

Large  quantities  of  cacao  beans  are  raised  in  southern 
Mexico,  Central  America,  and  the  tropical  parts  of 
South  America. 


160  CROPS    GROWN   FOR  BEVERAGES 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  plants  are  grown  primarily  for  beverages? 

2.  What   is  the  greatest   coffee-producing  country  in   the 
world  ?     What  other  countries  produce  coffee  ? 

3.  What  is  the  general  character  of  the  coffee  plant  ? 

4.  What  are  the  leading  tea-producing  countries  ? 

5.  What  is  the  general  character  of  the  tea  plant  ? 

6.  Cocoa  and  chocolate  are  made  from  what  part  of  the  cacao 
tree? 

REFERENCE 
Farmers'  Bulletins:  301,  Home-grown  tea. 


LESSON   XXXVI 
LITTLE-KNOWN    PLANTS 

WE  use  many  well-known  products  that  come  from 
little -known  crops  in  our  own  country,  or  from  plants 
that  grow  only  in  foreign  countries. 

The  Spices  are  a  group  of  products  from  cultivated 
plants  grown  in  foreign  lands.  Pepper,  ginger,  cloves, 
cinnamon,  allspice,  and  nutmeg  are  well-known  spices. 
Black  pepper  is  the  ground  seed  of  a  vine  that  grows 
in  the  East  Indies.  The  principal  red  peppers  are 
cayenne,  chili,  paprika,  and  sweet  peppers.  Cayenne 
or  red  pepper  is  the  pulverized  pods.  The  sweet  peppers 
are  pickled  while  green  or  dried  after  they  are  ripe. 
Ginger  is  made  from  the  spicy  roots  of  a  plant  that  is 
raised  in  tropical  countries.  Cloves  are  the  dried 
flower  buds  of  an  evergreen  tree  that  grows  mainly  in 
the  East  Indies.  Cinnamon  is  the  inner  bark  of  a  tree 
that  grows  in  many  tropical  countries.  Allspice  comes 
from  the  seeds  of  a  tree  grown  almost  exclusively  in 
Jamaica.  Nutmegs  are  the  kernels  from  the  seeds  of 
a  tree  that  grows  in  tropical  regions. 

Medicinal  Plants.  —  Many  medicines  are  produced 
from  plants,  and  some  of  these  are  important  farm 
crops.  Ginseng,  a  plant  native  to  America,  is  sold 

B.    AND    D     AC.  —  II  I&I 


162 


LITTLE-KNOWN   PLANTS 


TAPPING  A  RUBBER  TREE 


LITTLE-KNOWN   PLANTS 


163 


principally  to  the  Chinese.  Some  plants  are  used  for 
dyeing  purposes.  In  early  times,  the  indigo  plant 
was  an  important  crop  in  Virginia. 

Sources  of  Tannin.  —  Many  plants  are  raised  for 
the  tannin  in  them.  Tannin  is  a  material  used  for 
tanning  skins.  It  is 
obtained  from  the  bark 
of  some  trees,  like  the 
oak  and  hemlock. 
Canaigre  is  a  plant 
belonging  to  the  dock 
family,  which  is  grown 
for  the  tannin  con- 
tained in  the  thick 
roots. 

Rubber.  —  Most  of 
our  rubber  comes  from 
the  rubber  trees  of 
Mexico,  Central  Amer- 
ica, and  South  America. 
The  milky  sap  of  these 
trees  is  used  to  make 


,    ,  rrr,  .  VANILLA    BEAN 

rubber.       The    sap    is 

obtained  by  making  shallow  cuts  in  the  bark  of  the 
rubber  trees  and  collecting  the  sticky  liquid  as  it  flows 
from  the  cuts.  A  shrub,  called  guayule,  that  grows 
in  southwestern  United  States  and  northern  Mexico, 
contains  a  sap  from  which  rubber  can  be  made. 
Many  other  plants  have  sap  that  may  be  successfully 


164  LITTLE-KNOWN   PLANTS 

converted  into  rubber.  So  much  rubber  is  used  for 
the  tires  of  automobiles  and  other  vehicles,  that  there 
is  great  interest  in  plants  that  yield  rubber. 

Chicle  Gum.  —  Chewing  gum  is  made  from  the  sap 
of  the  chicle  tree  that  grows  in  southern  Mexico  and 
Central  America.  The  gummy  sap  is  purified,  and 


EDIBLE  MUSHROOMS 

boiled   with    sugar   and   flavors    that   make    it    taste 
good. 

Flavors.  —  There  are  many  plants  raised  for  flavors. 
Lemon  oil  is  extracted  from  lemons,  and  vanilla  is 
made  from  the  vanilla  bean  which  is  grown  in  Mexico 
and  other  tropical  countries.  Some  years  ago,  it  was 
found  that  peppermint  will  grow  well  in  the  black  soils 
of  Michigan,  and  some  farmers  became  rich  growing 
this  plant  for  the  peppermint  oil  it  contains. 


LITTLE-KNOWN    PLANTS  165 

Mushrooms  are  an  important  crop  raised  by  mar- 
ket gardeners.  Since  these  plants  grow  in  the  dark, 
they  are  often  raised  in  caves  and  cellars  and  under 
benches  in  greenhouses.  These  plants,  having  no 
green  parts,  must  have  ready-made  food ;  and  so  the 
soil  for  mushrooms  must  contain  a  large  amount  of 
organic  matter.  While  mushrooms  are  reproduced 
from  spores,  yet  the  usual  method  of  propagation  is  to 
take  small  masses  of  the  compost  in  which  are  the  under- 
ground parts  of  the  mushroom  and  plant  these  in  the 
new  mushroom  beds.  Each  little  cube  of  dried  com- 
post containing  the  white  threads  is  called  mushroom 
spawn. 

Hops.  —  In  parts  of  the  United  States,  hops  are  an 
important  crop.  Hop  plants  are  vines  that  are  grown 
on  poles.  The  hops  are  picked  and  pressed  into  bales 
for  market.  These  pods,  called  hops,  are  used  in 
brewing  to  flavor  beer. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  plants  yield  spices  ? 

2.  What  is  rubber  ?     How  is  it  obtained  ? 

3.  What   plants  are  valuable   because  01    their   medicinal 
properties  ? 

4.  What  plants  yield  tannin  ?     What  use  is  made  of  this 
product  ? 

5.  What  plants  are  grown  for  the  flavoring  extracts  that  are 
made  from  them  ? 

6.  How  are  mushrooms  raised  ? 

7.  What  use  is  made  of  hops  ? 


1 66  LITTLE-KNOWN  PLANTS 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  For  study  obtain  samples  of  the  plants  mentioned  in 
the  lesson.     Procure  samples  of  crude  rubber. 

2.  Make  a  cut  in  the  bark,  leaf,  or  fruit  of  the  Osage  orange 
tree.     The  milky  sap  that  flows  from  the  wound  closely  re- 
sembles the  sap  of  rubber  trees.     The  rubber  trees  and  the  Osage 
orange  tree  belong  to  the  same  family. 


LESSON  XXXVII 
POME   FRUITS 

Apples.  -  -  The  apple-like  fruits  are  called  pomes. 
A  pome  is  a  fruit  having  a  core  which  contains  the 
seeds  and  is  surrounded  by  the  fleshy  part.  The  prin- 
cipal pome  fruits  are  apples,  pears,  and  quinces.  The 
apple  is  the  most  common  and  the  most  highly  prized 
of  all  fruits. 

Apple  trees  will  live  and  bear  fruit  in  almost  every 
part  of  this  country.  No  other  fruit,  unless  it  is  the 
strawberry,  will  grow  in  so  many  different  kinds  of 
climate  and  soil ;  and  there  are  comparatively  few 
farmers  who  do  not  plant  apple  trees.  Apples  will 
grow  best  on  a  rich,  sandy  loam  with  good  drainage ; 
but  almost  any  soil  will  do  if  it  has  good  drainage,  so 
that  the  roots  do  not  stand  in  water. 

Propagation.  —  Apple  trees  are  propagated  by  tak- 
ing buds  or  scions  from  trees  of  the  variety  we  wish  to 
grow,  and  grafting  them  on  the  seedling  trees  which 
have  been  grown  from  apple  seeds.  When  the  grafted 
trees  are  one  or  two  years  old,  they  are  set  out  in  orchards. 
They  are  planted  from  twenty  to  forty  feet  apart, 
each  way.  Growing  clover  or  alfalfa  on  the  land  is 
good  preparation  for  apple  trees.  The  ground  of  the 

167 


1 68 


POME   FRUITS 


orchards  should  be  tilled  in  order  to  kill  weeds  and 
reduce  the  loss  of  moisture.  Usually  trees  begin  to 
bear  five  years  after  setting  out ;  and  with  proper 
care  they  will  continue  to  live  and  bear  fruit  during  the 
farmer's  lifetime. 


APPLES  SHOULD  BE  HANDLED  WITH  CARE 

Uses.  —  Apples  are  eaten  raw  and  are  cooked  in 
many  ways.  They  are  boiled  for  sauce,  baked,  roasted ; 
and  made  into  pies,  butter,  jelly,  preserves,  and  pickles. 
They  are  ground  up  and  the  juice  pressed  out  for  cider, 
and  the  cider  is  allowed  to  ferment  into  vinegar. 
Many  apples  are  dried  for  winter  use.  Apples  and  the 
pulp  from  cider  mills  may  be  used  for  feeding  stock. 


POME    FRUITS  169 

Pears  are  not  quite  so  hardy  as  apples,  but  they  are 
grown  almost ,  everywhere.  They  are  picked  before 
they  are  fully  ripe  and  are  allowed  to  ripen  after  they 
are  placed  in  storage.  This  is  done  because  if  they 
are  allowed  to  ripen  on  the  tree,  they  store  up  in  the 
flesh,  especially  around  the  core,  hard  particles  like 
sand  which  are  called  pear  grit.  They  do  not  contain 
so  much  grit  if  they  are  picked  green  and  placed  in 
storage  to  ripen. 

Quinces  are  not  an  important  fruit.  They  are  used 
for  jelly  and  preserves.  Loquats  are  grown  in  the 
South  and  in  California.  They  are  used  mainly  as 
fresh  fruit. 

Dwarfing.  —  Pear  trees  may  be  dwarfed  by  grafting 
them  on  quince  seedlings.  Apple  trees  may  be  dwarfed 
by  grafting  them  on  dwarf  kinds  of  seedlings.  The 
dwarfed  trees  may  be  planted  closer  together  than  the 
ordinary  trees.  They  are  easier  to  spray  and  the  fruit 
can  be  gathered  without  ladders. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  most  important  fruit  grown  in  this  country  ? 

2.  What  is  a  pome  ?     What  are  the  principal  pome  fruits  ? 

3.  What  kind  of  soil  is  best  for  apple  trees  ? 

4.  How  are  apple  trees  propagated  ? 

5.  Why  should  pears  be  picked  before  they  are  ripe  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

i.  On  a  certain  day,  each  pupil  should  bring,  if  possible, 
good  specimens  of  the  apples  grown  in  the  home  orchard. 


170  POME   FRUITS 

The  pupil  should  know  the  names  of  the  apples  he  brings.  Then 
the  whole  collection  should  be  studied  until  each  pupil  is  able 
to  recognize  the  apples  of  many  varieties.  The  general  ap- 
pearance, keeping  qualities,  and  flavor  of  each  should  be  studied. 
In  a  town  or  city  a  single  apple  of  each  of  several  varieties  on 
sale  in  fruit  stores  may  be  studied. 

2.  To  illustrate  the  general  plan  of  propagating  apple  trees 
the  following  exercise  should  be  performed.  Plant  a  number 
of  apple  seeds  in  the  ground ;  and  when  the  seedlings  come  up 
in  the  spring,  carefully  cultivate  them  in  order  to  get  rapid 
growth.  In  the  fall  remove  the  young  trees  with  their  roots 
from  the  ground,  tie  them  in  a  bundle,  and  keep  in  moist  sand 
in  a  cool  cellar  through  the  winter.  Store  in  the  same  way  the 
scions  cut  from  a  vigorous  apple  tree  of  the  variety  that  you 
wish  to  propagate.  Sometime  during  the  winter  the  scions 
should  be  grafted  to  the  seedlings  at  the  point  where  the  stem 
of  each  joins  the  root  system.  Place  the  grafted  trees  in  the 
sand  and  in  the  spring  set  them  out  in  the  nursery  bed.  After 
two  more  years  of  growth,  the  trees  may  be  transplanted  to  the 
ground  where  they  are  to  remain  permanently.  Consult  your 
teacher  about  the  details  of  grafting. 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  113,  The  apple  and  how  to  grow  it; 
153,  Orchard  enemies  in  the  Pacific  Northwest ;  171,  Control  of 
codling  moth;  283,  Spraying  for  apple  diseases  and  codling 
moth  in  the  Ozarks ;  291,  Evaporation  of  apples ;  482,  The  pear 
and  how  to  grow  it;  492,  The  more  important  insect  and 
fungous  enemies  of  the  fruit  and  foliage  of  the  apple. 

Selected  Readings:  An  Apple  Orchard  in  the  Spring,— 
William  Martin;  The  Planting  of  the  Apple  Tree,  —  W.  C. 
Bryant ;  The  Little  Red  Apple  Tree,  —  James  Whitcomb  Riley ; 
The  Apple,  —  John  Burroughs. 


LESSON  XXXVIII 
STONE    FRUITS 

THE  peach,  cherry,  plum,  and  apricot  are  called 
stone  fruits  because  the  seeds  are  inclosed  in  stonelike 
hulls. 

Peaches  are  grown  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States, 
but  the  commercial  growing  of  peaches  is  mainly  con- 
fined to  the  regions  which  are  comparatively  free  from 
late  spring  frosts.  Large  quantities  are  grown  in  the 
Southern  and  Pacific  states.  On  the  east  and  south 
shores  of  the  Great  Lakes,  where  the  presence  of  water 
prevents  extreme  changes  of  temperature,  great  crops 
of  peaches  are  produced. 

Location  of  orchards.  —  Peaches  do  best  in  well- 
drained  sandy  loams.  The  orchards  should  be  placed 
on  high  ground  from  which  cold  air  will  drain  off  to 
lower  ground.  Killing  frosts  are  more  likely  to  occur 
on  low  ground  than  on  neighboring  hills  and  slopes, 
for  the  cold  air,  like  water,  will  flow  down  the  slopes 
and  settle  in  low  places. 

A  northern  slope  is  considered  better  than  a  southern 
slope,  for  on  the  northern  slope,  which  is  turned  away 
from  the  sun,  the  opening  of  the  buds  is  delayed  until 

the  danger  of  frost  is  past. 

171 


172 


STONE   FRUITS 


.. 


Propagation.  —  Peaches,  as  well  as  the  other  stone 
fruits,  are  propagated  by  growing  seedling  trees  from 
seeds  and  then  grafting  the  seedlings  with  buds  from 
the  variety  to  be  grown. 

The  trees  do  not  live  so  long  as  apple  trees ;  nor  do 
they  grow  so  large  and  therefore  they  may  be  planted 

more  closely  together.  A  good 
distance  is  fifteen  or  twenty 
feet  apart  each  way. 

The  fruit.  -  -  The  common 
peaches  are  covered  with  fine 
hair  or  fuzz.  The  nectarine  is 
a  variety  with  a  smooth  sur- 
face. Peaches  whose  flesh  is 
free  from  the  stones  are  called 
freestones,  and  those  whose 
flesh  is  firmly  held  to  the  stones 
are  called  clingstones. 

Peaches  are  extremely  perish- 
able, and  must  be  used  within 
a  few  days  after  they  are  ripe. 
They  are  eaten  raw,  and  may 
be  canned,  dried,  or  preserved. 
Plums  are  grown  in  all  sections  of  the  United  States, 
but  the  states  of  California,  Oregon,  and  Washington 
produce  nearly  four  fifths  of  the  entire  yield.     Outside 
of  the  Pacific  states  they  are  grown  only  for  local  use. 
Kinds  of   plums.  —  In  this  country  three  general 
kinds  of  plums  are  grown.     The  Japanese  plums  are 


PEACH 


STONE    FRUITS 


173 


grown  in  the  warmer  sections.  The  European  plums 
are  generally  grown  in  the  northern  states.  In  climates 
too  severe  for  the  Japanese  and  European  varieties, 
the  American  plums,  which  have  been  developed  from 
native  wild  forms, 
are  cultivated. 

Prunes.  The 
sweet  plums  are 
called  prunes. 
They  have  so  much 
sugar  in  them  that 
they  will  preserve 
themselves,  like 
raisins,  when  they 
dry.  Dried  prunes 
are  an  important 
article  of  food. 

Cherries  are 
grown  on  nearly 
every  farm  for  do- 
mestic use,  but 
their  production  on 
a  large  scale  for 
commercial  purposes  is  confined  mainly  to  California. 
The  states  leading  in  the  production  of  cherries  are 
California,  Pennsylvania,  Indiana,  Michigan,  Ohio, 
and  New  York. 

Cherry  trees  come  into  bearing  in  three  or  four  years 
after  being  planted.     They  are  set  out  from   ten   to 


PLUM  ORCHARD  IN  BLOOM 


174  STONE   FRUITS 

fifteen  feet  apart  each  way.  They  do  well  in  any  well- 
drained,  rich  soil  and  will  grow  with  less  moisture  than 
most  fruits. 

Apricots  are  largely  raised  in  the  South;  and  in  Cali- 
fornia there  are  apricot  orchards  many  acres  in  extent. 
The  fruit  is  eaten  fresh,  and  it  may  be  dried  or  canned 
for  winter  use. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  most  important  kinds  of  stone  fruits? 

2.  Where  are  the  great  peach-growing  sections  of  the  United 
States  ? 

3.  What  situations  are  best  for  peach  trees  ? 

4.  How  are  peach  trees  propagated? 

5.  What  are  nectarines  ? 

6.  Where  is  the  great  plum-growing  section  of  the  United 
States  ? 

7.  What  are  prunes  ? 

8.  What  states  lead  in  the  production  of  cherries  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

i.  In  the  fall  select  good  peach  stones  from  healthy  trees, 
and  keep  them  through  the  winter  out-of-doors  in  a  box  of  sand 
so  that  the  shells  may  be  softened  by  freezing  and  thawing.  In 
the  spring  plant  the  seeds  in  a  bed  in  the  garden.  The  young 
seedling  trees  will  grow  three  or  four  feet  high  during  the  first 
season. 

In  August  or  September  each  seedling  should  be  budded  with 
a  bud  taken  from  a  tree  of  the  variety  you  wish  to  propagate. 
In  the  South,  budding  should  be  done  a  few  weeks  earlier. 
Make  a  T-shaped  cut  in  the  bark  of  a  seedling,  and  in  the  cut 
insert  a  bud  with  a  little  shield  of  its  own  bark.  Close  the 


STONE   FRUITS  175 

edges  of  the  bark  together  and  tie  with  a  strip  of  cloth.  As  soon 
as  the  bud  begins  to  grow,  cut  off  the  young  tree  a  few  inches 
above  the  bud,  and  remove  all  other  buds  that  may  grow  on  the 
tree.  From  this  transplanted  bud  will  develop  the  trunk  and 
branches  of  a  tree  that  will  bear  fruit  of  the  same  kind  as  that 
of  the  tree  from  which  the  bud  was  taken. 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  80,  Peach  twig-borer,  an  important 
enemy  of  stone  fruits;  440,  Spraying  peaches  for  the  control 
of  brown-rot,  scab,  and  curculio. 


LESSON  XXXIX 
CITRUS   FRUITS 

Where  grown.  -  -  The  orange,  pomelo,  or  grapefruit, 
lemon,  lime,  and  citron  are  citrus  fruits,  which  grow 
in  tropical  and  semitropical  regions.  They  are  grown  in 
California,  Arizona,  Florida,  and  the  coastal  belt  in 
Texas,  Louisiana,  and  Mississippi.  Southern  Cali- 
fornia is  by  far  the  greatest  citrus  region  of  our 
country.  This  region  extends  into  northern  California 
in  the  Sacramento  valley. 

Orange  and  lemon  groves  present  a  beautiful  sight. 
The  trees  have  glossy,  evergreen  leaves  and  they 
blossom  and  bear  fruit  all  the  time.  On  a  single  tree 
there  may  be  fragrant  white  blossoms  and  ripe  fruit 
at  the  same  time.  The  trees  will  adapt  themselves 
to  a  great  variety  of  soils.  Large  citrus  crops  can  be 
grown  from  soils  which  are  regarded  as  worthless  for 
ordinary  agriculture.  But  a  rich  loam  that  permits 
free  drainage  is  best  for  these  trees. 

Propagation.  —  In  California  the  citrus  trees  are 
grown  in  regions  that  were  formerly  deserts.  The 
trees  are  planted  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet  apart 
each  way.  Formerly  the  orange  and  lemon  trees  were 

176 


CITRUS    FRUITS 


177 


grown  from  seeds,  but  now  they  are  propagated  by 
budding  the  desired  varieties  to  seedlings.  It  is  evident 
that  seedless  oranges  cannot  be  grown  from  seeds. 
When  the  orange  trees  are  set  out,  they  are  trimmed 
back,  so  that  the  branches  start  out  from  the  trunk  at 
a  distance  of  two 
or  three  feet  above 
the  ground. 

Cultivation.— The 
orange  and  lemon 
orchards  are  culti- 
vated in  the  same 
way.  The  ground 
is  kept  covered  with 
a  loose  soil  mulch 
by  frequent  culti- 
vation, so  that  there 
will  be  only  a  slight 
loss  of  soil  moisture. 
In  the  western  cit- 
rus section  the  or- 
chards must  be 
irrigated.  In  the  southern  belt  the  orchards  are  not 
irrigated,  for  the  rainfall  is  sufficient. 

Uses.  —  Oranges  are  generally  eaten  in  their  nat- 
ural state,  although  "they  are  sometimes  preserved.  A 
drink  called  orangeade  is  made  from  the  juice  of  the 
orange.  The  juice  of  the  lemon  is  used  for  flavoring 
foods  and  also  for  making  lemonade. 

B.    AND   D.    AG.  —  12 


ORANGE  TREE 


1 78 


CITRUS   FRUITS 


An  important  industry.  —  In  California  the  orange 
and  lemon  industry  has  reached  such  proportions  that 
thousands  of  carloads  are  shipped  each  year  to  eastern 
markets.  The  citrus  industry  in  Florida  is  not  nearly 
so  extensive  as  in  California.  But  the  Florida  citrus 
crops  reach  the  eastern  market  centers  with  less  cost 
of  transportation  than  the  western  crops. 


ORANGE  GROVE  OF  CALIFORNIA  IN  SURFACE  IRRIGATION 

Both  seedless  oranges  and  those  with  seeds  are  grown, 
but  the  growing  of  seedless  oranges  is  increasing.  The 
most  important  variety  is  the  Washington  Navel,  a 
seedless  orange  which  is  extensively  raised  in  California. 

The  kumquat  is  a  dwarf  orange  grown  in  the  southern 
citrus  belt.  It  is  used  to  make  preserves  or  to  eat  in 
the  natural  state. 


CITRUS    FRUITS  179 

Grapefruits  are  grown  in  California  and  Florida. 
The  trees  require  about  the  same  treatment  as  orange 
trees.  The  fruit  is  served  as  a  first  course,  usually  at 
breakfast.  The  citron  is  a  large  citrus  fruit.  The  dried 
citron  which  we  buy  is  the  candied  rind  of  this  fruit. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  citrus  fruits  are  raised  in  the  United  States? 

2.  Where  are  the  citrus  regions  of  this  country  ? 

3.  What  climatic  conditions  are  necessary  for  the  growing 
of  citrus  fruits  ? 

4.  How  are  orange  and  lemon  trees  propagated  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  On  boxes  of  citrus  fruits  in  stores,  look  for  the  name  of  the 
place  where  the  fruit  is  grown. 

2.  Obtain  samples  of  oranges,  lemons,  limes,  grapefruits,  and 
citrons ;   and  manufactured  products  of  these  fruits. 

3.  Plant  seeds  of  oranges,  lemons,  and  grapefruits,  and  study 
the  young  plants  of  each. 

REFERENCES 

If  you  live  in  a  citrus-growing  state,  write  to  the  Agricultural 
College  for  bulletins  on  the  growing  of  citrus  fruits. 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  171,  Scale  insects  and  mites  on  citrus 
trees ;  238,  Citrus  fruit  growing  in  Gulf  States. 


LESSON  XL 
GRAPES 

The  grapevine  has  been  cultivated  since  early  times 
for  the  wine  which  is  made  from  the  juice  of  the  grape. 
In  modern  times  we  are  using  more  and  more  of  the 
grapes  as  raisins  and  fresh  fruit.  On  nearly  every  farm 
in  the  United  States,  the  grapevine  is  grown  to  supply 
the  family  with  grapes  for  table  use  and  for  canning 
and  making  jelly.  In  the  greater  part  of  the  country 
grapes  are  grown  only  to  supply  the  local  demand. 
The  Pacific  states,  the  eastern  and  southern  shores  of 
the  Great  Lakes,  and  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
region  are  the  three  principal  sections  that  raise  grapes 
on  a  commercial  scale.  California  is  far  ahead  of  any 
other  state  in  the  production  of  grapes. 

Varieties.  —  In  the  Pacific  states  the  European 
varieties  are  almost  exclusively  grown.  Varieties  de- 
veloped from  native  American  species  and  hybrids  of 
European  and  American  vines  are  grown  in  the  Great 
Lakes  region.  In  the  southern  section  both  the  Euro- 
pean and  American  varieties  are  grown,  but  the  Ameri- 
can vines  are  raised  in  greater  number.  The  western 
vineyards  produce  grapes  for  table  use,  for  raisins,  and 
for  wine.  In  the  eastern  part  of  the  country  the  grapes 
are  grown  mainly  for  table  use.  The  Chautauqua 

180 


GRAPES 


181 


district  of  western  New  York  is  an  important  center  of 
grape  juice  manufacture. 

Propagation.  —  Grapevines  are  propagated  from  cut- 
tings, and  by  layering,  budding,  and  grafting.  In 
starting  new  varieties 
the  seeds  are  planted. 

Soils. — The  grape  will 
thrive  in  a  variety  of 
soils.  In  northern 
United  States  the  most 
important  thing  to  con- 
sider in  the  location  of 
vineyards  is  frost  pre- 
vention. The  vineyards 
are  located  near  rivers 
or  lakes  and  on  slopes 
from  which  frosty  air 
will  flow  down  to  lower 
levels. 

In  California  the 
grapes  are  grown  in  irri- 
gation districts  and  the 
vineyards  are  cultivated 
to  secure  the  loose  soil 
mulch  which  saves  soil  moisture.  Some  of  the  vine- 
yards are  thousands  of  acres  in  extent. 

Raisins  are  produced  only  in  the  hottest  part  of  the 
dry  region.  The  raisin  grapes  have  so  much  sugar  in 
them  that  they  are  preserved  by  drying  in  the  open  air. 


BUNCH  OF  AMERICAN  GRAPES 


182 


GRAPES 


The  grapes  are  spread  on  large  flat  trays  placed  on  the 
ground  between  the  rows,  and  allowed  to  dry  in  the  sun. 
Some  of  the  raisins  are  packed  with  the  seeds  in  them, 
while  others  are  taken  to  a  seeding  mill  where  the  seeds 
are  taken  out  by  machinery  and  the  seeded  raisins  are 
then  put  in  packages  to  be  sold. 


GRAPE  CULTUR 


A  large  amount  of  grape  juice  is  now  put  up  in  bottles, 
so  it  will  keep  in  the  unfermented  state.  It  is  a  re- 
freshing drink. 

Training  the  vines.  —  In  the  eastern  part  of  the 
United  States  the  vines  are  supported  by  stakes  or  by 
trellises  of  boards  or  wire.  In  the  West  in  most  of  the 
vineyards  a  strong  stumpy  trunk  of  the  vine  is  obtained 
by  pruning,  and  the  fruiting  branches  are  supported 
by  this  trunk. 


GRAPES  183 

Pruning.  —  An  important  part  of  the  work  in  raising 
grapes  is  the  pruning  of  the  vines.  The  old  branches  of 
the  vine  that  have  borne  fruit  are  cut  back,  leaving  only 
a  short  length  with  one  or  two  buds  which  develop 
the  fruiting  branches  or  canes  which  bear  fruit  the 
following  season.  By  pruning,  the  proper  shape  of  the 
vine  is  secured  and  the  quality  of  the  grapes  is  improved. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  are  the  important  grape-growing  sections  of  the 
United  States  ? 

2.  What  products  are  made  from  grapes  ? 

3.  What  is  the  most  important  element  of  climate  to  be  con- 
sidered in  determining  the  proper  site  for  a  vineyard  ? 

4.  By  what  means  are  grapevines  supported  ? 

5.  How  are  raisins  manufactured  ? 

6.  What  varieties  of  grapes  are  grown  in  the  locality  in  which 
you  live  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  In  the  fall  after  the  leaves  have  fallen,  cut  off  several 
twigs,  six  to  twelve  inches  long,  from  a  vigorous  grapevine.     Tie 
the  twigs  in  a  bundle  and  place  them  in  a  box  of  moist  sand  in 
a  cool  cellar  and  keep  them  through  the  winter.     In  the  spring 
place  the  cuttings  in   mellow  soil.     Plant   them  a  few  inches 
apart  and  at  such  a  depth  that  only  the  buds  at  the  upper  end 
are  above  ground. 

2.  In  the  spring  bend  down  a  cane  of  a  grapevine  and  fasten 
in  a  shallow  trench  of  mellow  soil.     A  cane  near  the  ground  and 
of  the  last  season's  growth  should  be  selected.     When  shoots 
from  the  buds  are  well  started  fill  the  trench  with  soil.     Roots 
will  then  form  at  the  base  of  each  shoot.     In  the  following  fall 


1 84  GRAPES 

take  up  the  cane  and  cut  it  into  parts  so   that  each  shoot 
and  root  system  becomes  a  new  plant. 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  118,  Grape  growing  in  the  South;  156, 
Home  vineyard  with  special  reference  to  northern  conditions; 
175,  Home  manufacture  and  use  of  unfermented  grape  juice; 
284,  Insect  and  fungous  enemies  of  grape  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains;  471,  Grape  propagation,  pruning,  and  trimming. 


LESSON  XLI 
SMALL  FRUITS 


PICKING  STRAWBERRIES 

Berries  and  other  small  fruits  are  among  the  best 
things  grown  by  the  farmer  and  gardener.  The  most 
common  small  fruits  are  the  strawberry,  raspberry, 
blackberry,  gooseberry,  and  currant.  Nearly  every 
farmer  grows  at  least  two  or  three  of  these  fruits. 
The  cranberry  is  grown  in  bogs  or  swamps  where  the 


i86 


SMALL    FRUITS 


plants  are  flooded  with  water  during  part  of  the  time ; 
and  the  raising  of  cranberries  is  a  special  business. 
Huckleberries,  blueberries,  and  June  berries  are  gath- 


STRAWBERRY  RUNNER 

ered  from  wild  bushes  or  trees,  and  as  yet  are  little 

cultivated. 

The  strawberry  is 
grown  in  more  parts 
of  the  world  than  any 
other  fruit.  It  will 
grow  in  hot  and  cold 
climates,  and  on  a  va- 
riety of  soils.  It  does 
best  on  rich,  moist  soil. 
Strawberries  are  propa- 

BLACKBKRRIES  gatecj  by  transplanting 

the  young  plants  which  are  formed  on  the  runners  of  old 


SMALL   FRUITS 


187 


plants.  They  are  planted  in  hills  or  in  rows.  The 
rows  are  about  three  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  in  the 
rows  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  apart.  They  will 
yield  a  full  crop  of  fruit  the  second  season  after  they 
are  planted.  The  strawberry  bed  should  be  replaced 

every  three  or  four     

years,  as  the  young 
plants  produce  the 
most  and  best  ber- 
ries. Straw  is  used 
to  mulch  the  plants 
in  order  to  save 
moisture,  prevent 
the  growth  of 
weeds,  and  keep 
the  berries  off  the 
soil,  so  that  they 
will  be  clean  when 
picked. 

Raspb  erries, 
blackberries,  and 
dewberries  are 
propagated  from 
root  sprouts  or  by 
layers.  The  red  raspberry  and  the  blackberry  are 
started  from  the  root  sprouts,  while  the  blackcap  rasp- 
berry is  started  from  layers.  Layers  are  the  tops  of 
the  branches  or  canes  laid  down  and  covered  with  soil 
until  they  take  root,  when  they  are  cut  off  and  set  out 


RED  AND  WHITE  CURRANTS 


i88  SMALL   FRUITS 

as  new  plants.  Raspberries  and  blackberries  bear  their 
fruit  on  second-year  canes.  The  new  canes  which  come 
up  during  any  summer  bear  fruit  the  following  summer. 
After  fruiting,  the  old  canes  die  and  should  be  cut  out 
as  soon  as  the  berry  crop  is  harvested.  There  are  many 
varieties  of  raspberries  and  blackberries  and  also  hy- 
brids of  these  two  plants.  The  loganberry  is  the  most 
common  hybrid  of  the  raspberry  and  blackberry. 

Currants  and  gooseberries  are  among  the  easiest 
fruits  to  grow.  They  are  very  hardy  and  may  be 
grown  in  any  garden.  They  are  propagated  by  cuttings 
of  the  two-year-old  stems.  They  are  set  out  about 
four  feet  apart  each  way;  and  if  properly  cultivated 
and  pruned,  they  will  bear  fruit  for  many  years. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  most  common  small  fruits  grown  in  the 
United  States? 

2.  What  methods  are  used  in  growing  strawberries? 

3.  How  are  the  red  raspberry  and  the  blackberry  propagated  ? 

4.  What  is  the  loganberry  ? 

5.  What  soil  and  moisture  conditions  are  required  by  cran- 
berries ? 

6.  How  are  new  plants  of  currants  and  of  gooseberries  pro- 
duced ? 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins :  154,  Home  fruit  garden,  preparation  and 
care;  176,  Cranberry  culture;  178,  Insects  injurious  in  cran- 
berry culture ;  198,  Strawberries ;  203,  Canned  fruit,  preserves, 
and  jellies,  household  methods  of  preparation. 


LESSON  XLII 
NUTS 

Kind  of  nuts. —Nearly  all  persons  eat  nuts  as  luxuries, 
either  in  the  natural  state,  or  roasted,  or  in  candies  ; 
and  many  people  use  them  as  regular  articles  of  food. 
Hickory  nuts,  walnuts,  butternuts,  chestnuts,  hazel- 
nuts,  beechnuts,  and  pirion  nuts  are  common  examples 


:         5 

i ,  BLACK  WALNUT.     2.  BKF.CHNUT.    3,  ALMOND.    4.  PICANTT.    5,  ENGLISH  WALNVT 

of  American  wild  nuts.  The  pinon  nuts  are  the  large 
seeds  in  the  cones  of  the  pinon  pines  of  southwestern 
United  States.  Chestnut  trees  are  cultivated  on  some 
farms,  but  in  Italy  and  other  countries  of  southern 
Europe  chestnuts  are  an  important  crop.  In  these 
countries  they  are  roasted,  or  ground  into  flour  and 
used  to  make  bread.  Chestnuts  from  these  countries 
are  shipped  to  the  United  States.  There  are  three 

189 


190 


NUTS 


kinds  of  walnuts:  the  black  walnut,  white  walnut,  or 
butternut,  and  the  Persian  or  English  walnuts. 

Nut  trees  that  are  grown  on  a  large  scale  are 
the  English  walnut,  almond,  and  pecan.  English 
walnuts  and  almonds  are  raised  extensively  in  Cali- 
fornia. There  are  two  kinds  of  almonds;  bitter  al- 
monds, used  for  bitter  almond  oil,  and  the  sweet  almond, 
used  as  an  edible  nut.  The  pecan  is  a  kind  of  hickory 
nut  that  is  grown  on  a  commercial  scale  in  the  South. 


i,  BUTTERNUT.      2,  CHESTNUT.      3,  HAZELNUT.      4,  HICKORY  NUT.      5,  PECAN 


Large  pecan  orchards  are  planted  in  Texas,  Mississippi, 
Louisiana,  and  the  South  Atlantic  states.  The  nuts 
are  large  and  have  thin  shells  called  paper  shells. 

Peanuts  are  the  most  common  and  cheapest  nuts 
found  in  the  market.  They  are  grown  principally  in 
the  South,  but  the  Spanish  peanut  may  be  ripened  in 
the  northern  states  if  given  proper  care.  The  small, 
Spanish  peanut  gives  the  largest  yields,  and  it  grows 
in  the  form  of  a  bush  pea,  instead  of  having  trailing 
vines.  They  are  usually  shelled  and  sold  as  salted 


NUTS 


191 


peanuts.     They  yield  from  forty  to  more  than  one  hun- 
dred bushels  per  acre. 

Planting. — 
The  shelled 
nuts  or  the 
seeds  left  in 
the  shell  are 
planted  in  the 
spring.  The 


soil    is    plowed    and 
harrowed  to  make  a 

PEANUT  PLANT 

loose   seed    bed,  and 

the  seeds  are  planted  about  two  inches  deep  and  ten  or 
twelve  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  They  are  cultivated 
to  keep  the  ground  loose  and  to  kill  weeds. 

Harvesting.  —  In  the  fall  they  are  harvested  by  plow- 
ing up  the  nuts  and  then  throwing  the  vines  and  nuts 
in  piles.  These  piles  are  made  by  stacking  the  plants 
around  stakes  driven  into  the  ground.  In  these  stacks, 
which  are  about  two  feet  across  and  live  feet  high, 
the  nuts  and  vines  are  dried  and  cured.  They  are 
then  hauled  to  some  spot  in  the  field  or  to  a  shed  where 
the  nuts  are  picked  off  the  vines  by  hand  or  machine. 


IQ2  NUTS 

As  they  may  have  particles  of  soil  sticking  to  them, 
the  nuts  are  run  through  polishing  machines  that  clean 
and  brighten  them  before  they  are  placed  in  sacks  for 
market. 

Uses.  —  The  peanut  crop  has  many  uses.  The 
plants  are  used  for  hay,  which  is  about  equal  to  clover 
hay  in  food  value.  The  whole  plants  or  the  vines  after 
the  nuts  are  picked  are  fed  to  stock.  They  are  some- 
times used  to  feed  hogs  by  letting  the  animals  root  the 
nuts  out  of  the  ground. 

Roasting.  —  In  this  country  the  peanuts  are  roasted 
before  they  are  eaten,  though  some  people  like  them 
raw.  Many  peanuts  are  shelled  by  machinery  and  are 
used  for  making  salted  peanuts.  Peanut  oil  is  used 
like  olive  oil,  and  after  the  oil  has  been  pressed  from  the 
nuts,  the  peanut  cake  is  used  to  feed  stock.  Peanuts 
are  also  used  to  make  peanut  butter. 

Rotation.  —  Peanuts  are  leguminous  plants,  closely 
related  to  the  peas  and  beans.  Like  other  legumes, 
this  crop  gathers  nitrogen  in  the  roots,  and  is  becoming 
an  important  rotation  crop  for  nuts,  forage,  and  soil 
improvement.  Peanuts  will  grow  in  almost  any  soil, 
but  light-colored  soils  are  preferred,  as  dark  soils  are  apt 
to  stain  the  hulls. 

QUESTIONS 

1 .  What  kinds  of  trees  yield  nuts  that  are  used  as  food  ? 

2.  What  nut  trees  are  grown  on  a  commercial  scale? 

3.  What  are  pecans? 


NUTS  193 

4.  What  methods  are  used  in  raising  peanuts? 

5.  What  uses  are  made  of  a  peanut  crop  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  collection  of  all  the  edible  nuts  growing  on  trees  in 
your  locality.     Make  also  a  collection  of  other  nuts  that  may 
be  found  in  the  markets. 

2.  Plant  several  unroasted  peanuts  and  study  the  growth  of 
the  young  plants. 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins:   332,  Nuts  and  their  uses  as  food;   431, 
The  peanut. 


B.   AND   D.   AC.  —  13 


LESSON  XLIII 
FORESTRY 

Forests.  -  -  The  forest  lands  of  the  United  States 
consist  of  many  small  woodlots  on  farms,  and  extensive 
forests  owned  by  lumber  companies  or  by  the  states 
or  the  national  government.  Most  of  the  large  forest 
areas  to-day  are  located  in  the  Appalachian,  Rocky, 
Cascade,  and  Sierra  Nevada  mountains,  and  in  the 
Great  Lakes  region  and  the  coastal  plain  of  the  southern 
states.  The  farm  woodlots  are  remnants  of  the  former 
forest  or  are  new  forests  set  out  by  the  farmers. 

Windbreaks.  — •  On  the  prairies  small  groves  are 
planted  on  the  windward  side  of  farm  buildings  for 
protection  against  the  cold  winds  of  winter  and  the 
destructive  winds  of  summer.  These  groves  also  give 
shade  and  beauty  to  the  homesteads.  Narrow  belts 
of  trees  are  planted  also  along  the  windward  side  of 
farms  to  protect  the  crops  against  wind.  Sometimes 
groves  are  planted  on  the  prairies  with  rapid-growing 
trees  to  furnish  a  supply  of  fuel,  poles,  and  posts.  The 
hardy  catalpa  has  been  most  extensively  planted  for 
this  purpose. 

Effect  on  water  supply.  —  Forests  on  mountain  slopes 
prevent  the  rapid  flow  of  surface  water  in  times  of 
heavy  rainfall,  by  holding  much  of  the  rain  in  the  spongy 

194 


FORESTRY 


195 


mass  of  leaves  and  humus  on  the  forest  floor.  This 
water  gradually  sinks  into  the  ground,  and  weeks  and 
months  later  it  appears  in  springs  that  flow  into  the 
streams.  In  this  way  floods  are  reduced  and  a  greater 
flow  of  water  ob- 
tained in  the  dry 
months  of  the  year. 
These  forests  also 
protect  winter 
snows  from  melt- 
ing rapidly  in  the 
spring,  and  thus 
the  flow  of  streams 
is  made  more 
regular. 

National  forests. 
-  In  order  to  con- 
serve the  water  for 
power  and  irriga- 
tion the  national 
government  has 
formed  large  Na- 
tional Forests  in 
the  western  states. 
These  forests  occupy  public  lands,  and  thus  are  the 
property  of  all  the  people  of  the  United  States.  Xot 
only  will  these  forests  regulate  the  flow  of  water  for 
power  and  irrigation,  but  they  will  be  important  sources 
of  lumber  and  other  forest  products. 


FORESTS   PREVENT  TH::    R\pn>   FLOW  OF  WATER 
DURING  HEAVY  RAINFALL 


196  FORESTRY 

Improving  the  stand.  —  In  the  millions  of  farm  wood 
lots  the  farmers  can  do  very  important  work  in  forestry 
by  improving  the  stand  of  trees.  Diseased  trees 
and  species  of  little  value  should  be  cut  down  and 
replaced  by  trees  of  high  value.  Each  wood  lot  should 
also  carry  a  full  stand  of  trees.  In  order  to  im- 
prove the  wood  lots  the  farmers  should  know  the  lead- 
ing species  of  timber  trees,  the  uses  of  each  species, 
the  market  demands,  the  best  methods  of  dealing  with 
diseases  and  insects  that  attack  forest  trees,  the  effect 
of  grazing  upon  the  wood  lot,  and  the  best  methods  of 
growing  and  transplanting  young  trees. 

Arbor  Day.  —  In  order  to  encourage  tree  planting 
and  arouse  an  interest  in  the  general  problems  of  for- 
estry, many  states  have  selected  one  day  in  the  fall  or 
spring  as  Arbor  Day  and  made  it  either  a  legal  holiday 
or  a  school  holiday.  While  much  good  work  has  been 
done  on  Arbor  Day,  yet  in  the  whole  country  millions 
of  young  trees  set  out  on  this  day  have  died  because 
the  work  was  done  so  poorly.  Since  the  planting  of 
young  trees  is  practical  work  in  forestry,  the  pupils 
should  do  it  so  well  that  the  trees  will  continue  to  grow 
after  planting. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  are  the  great  forest  areas  of  the  United  States? 

2.  For  what  purposes  are  trees  planted  in  the  prairie  region 
of  the  United  States? 

3.  How  do  forests  lessen  floods  ? 

4.  Of  what  service  are  forests  to  irrigation? 


FORESTRY 


197 


5.  What  are  the  uses  of  the  National  Forests? 

6.  What  ,can  be  done  to  improve  the  farm  wood  lot  ? 

7.  What  are  some  of  the  most  common  shade  trees? 

8.  What  trees  make  good  fence  posts  ? 

9.  What  trees  may  be  propagated  by  planting  cuttings  ? 
10.  What  places  in  your  locality  should  be  devoted  to  the 

growing  of  trees  ?     Why  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  trees  that  grow  in  your  locality. 

2.  Collect  specimens  of  sawed  pieces  of  wood. 

3.  Collect  twigs  of  the  various  species  of  trees.     Fasten  the 
twigs  to  sheets  of  cardboard  and  label  properly. 

4.  Collect  seeds  of  many  trees.     Keep  them  in  bottles  or 
small  glass  jars.     What  trees  have  winged  seeds?     What  trees 
have  seeds  inclosed  in  cones  ? 

5.  In  the  early  fall  collect  leaves  of  forest  trees.     Place  the 
leaves  between  sheets  of  blotting  paper  or  carpet  paper,  and 
keep  under  several  pounds  pressure  until  they  are  dry.     Then 
mount  them  on  sheets  of  stiff  paper.     On  each  sheet  give  the 
name  of  the  tree  to  which  the  leaves  belong,  and  the  place  and 
kind  of  ground  in  which  the  tree  grew.     Ask  your  teacher  for 
full  directions  for  collecting,  drying,  and  mounting  leaves. 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  67,  Forestry  for  farmers;  99,  Three  in- 
sect enemies  of  shade  trees ;  134,  Tree  planting  on  rural  school 
grounds ;  173,  Primer  of  forestry,  pt.  i ;  358,  Primer  of  forestry, 
pt.  2;  228,  Forest  planting  and  farm  management;  387,  Pre- 
servative treatment  of  farm  timbers;  421,  Control  of  blowing 
soils;  423,  Forest  nurseries  for  schools  ;  468,  Forestry  in  nature 
study ;  476,  The  dying  of  pine  in  the  Southern  States :  cause, 
extent,  and  remedy. 


LESSON  XLIV 


WEEDS   AND   PLANT   DISEASES 

Weeds  are  plants  that  grow  where  they  are  not 
wanted.     The  farmer  tills  the  soil,  plants  the  seed,  and 

adds  fertilizers  for  the  use- 
ful crop  he  expects  to 
grow.  Then  the  unwel- 
come weeds  come  to  rob 
the  soil  of  the  needed 
moisture  and  fertility. 
The  farmer  tries  to  de- 
stroy them  by  soil  tillage, 
but  year  after  year  weeds 
still  infest  the  fields. 

Value  of  weeds. — Some 
people  consider  weeds  use- 
ful because  they  make  it 
necessary  for  the  farmer 
to  cultivate  his  crops  in 
order  to  kill  the  weeds. 
Sometimes,  however,  the 
stirring  of  the  soil  for  the  necessary  destruction  of 
weeds  has  to  be  done  at  a  time  when  it  is  not  best  for 

198 


SMUT  ON  CORN 


WEEDS    AND    PLANT   DISEASES 


199 


the  crop.  Hence,  the  wisest  plan  is  not  to  have  the 
weeds.  Those  that  do  grow  should  not  be  allowed 
to  go  to  seed ;  and  great  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
plant  weeds  with  the  seeds  of  the  crop. 

Weeds  and  rotation.  -  -  The  system  of  cultivation 
and  rotation,  the  kinds  of  crops  raised,  and  the  time 
of  planting  and  har- 
vesting may  be  partly 
determined  by  the 
presence  of  weeds. 
The  farmer  who  prac- 
tices the  right  system 
never  worries  about 
weeds,  for  he  can  usu- 
ally control  them  with- 
out much  difficulty. 
Some  crops,  as  millet, 
for  example,  may  be 
planted  so  early  and 
may  grow  so  quickly 
that  the  weeds  do  not 
get  a  chance.  Alfalfa, 

which  grows  rapidly  and  is  cut  several  times  a  year, 
will  keep  the  land  free  from  almost  all  kinds  of  weeds. 
This  is  especially  true  after  the  first  year. 

Kinds  of  weeds.  -  -  There  are  many  kinds  of  weeds. 
Ragweeds,  cockleburs,  purslane,  Canada  thistles,  dan- 
delions, wild  mustard,  sorrel,  dodder,  and  jimson  weeds 
are  a  few  of  the  most  common  species.  What  other 


SMUT  ON  WHEAT 


200 


WEEDS   AND   PLANT   DISEASES 


kinds  can  you  name?     What  is  the  most  troublesome 
weed  in  the  vicinity  in  which  you  live  ? 

Plant  diseases.  —  Cultivated  plants  are  subject  to 
many  diseases,  nearly  all  of  which  are  due  to  bacteria 
or  fungi.  Wheat  rust  is  a  disease  caused  by  fungi  that 

live  on  the  wheat  and  pene- 
trate into  the  living  tissues  of 
the  plant.  The  rust  particles 
are  the  spores  of  the  fungi. 
Pear  blight  is  due  to  bacteria 
in  the  sap  of  the  tree.  The 
farmer  must  do  many  things 
to  keep  his  plants  healthy. 
Some  of  the  smuts  on  grain 
may  be  prevented  by  treating 
the  seeds  with  chemicals  that 
destroy  the  spores  of  the  fungi 
that  cause  the  smuts.  When 
fungi  grow  on  leaves  or  fruit, 
as  in  the  case  of  leaf  blights 
and  the  apple  scab,  spraying 
with  chemicals  will  kill  the  fungous  growth.  When 
the  disease  is  due  to  bacteria  in  the  sap,  like  pear  or 
apple  blight  or  the  bacterial  disease  of  squash  vines, 
the  only  thing  that  can  be  done  is  to  destroy  the 
diseased  plants,  in  order  to  prevent  the  spread  of  the 
disease. 

One  of  the  best  ways  of  controlling  plant  diseases 
is  breeding  for  the  production  of  disease  resistance. 


SMUT  ON  OATS 


WEEDS   AND    PLANT   DISEASES  201 

In  this  way  plants  may  be  obtained  that  are  immune 
from  certain  diseases. 


QUESTIONS 

1 .  What  is  a  weed  ? 

2.  What   are   the   most   common   weeds   in   your   locality? 
Which  of  these  are  regarded  as  the  worst  pests  ? 

3.  In  what  ways  are  weed  seeds  carried  from  place  to  place? 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  most  common  plant  diseases? 

5.  What  methods  are  used  to  destroy  or  prevent  plant  dis- 
eases ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  Dig  up  a  burdock  in  order  to  study  the  whole  plant. 
Examine  the  leaves  and  the  roots.     Do  grazing  animals  eat 
the  leaves  ?     Does  cutting  off  the  stem  at  the  top  of  the  ground 
kill  the  plant?     How  are  the  seeds  distributed? 

2.  Make  a  study  of  the  dandelion.     Count  the   number  of 
seeds  in  a  ripe  dandelion  head.     Through  how  many  months 
of  a  year  do  dandelions  bloom  ?     How  are  the  seeds  distributed  ? 
Where  are   the  leaves  placed?      Dig  up  several    plants  and 
examine  the  roots.     What  advantages  have  dandelions  that 
make  them  persistent  weeds  ? 

3.  Collect  the  seeds  of  a  large  number  of  weeds  and  keep  them 
in  small  bottles. 

4.  Bring  to  school  specimens  of  plants  with  such  diseases  as 
potato  scab,  smuts  of  grain  crops,  pear  blight,  downy  mildew 
of  the  grape,  peach  leaf  curl,  apple  scab,  apple  rust,  brown  rot 
of  the  peach,  black  knot  of  the  cherry  and  plum,  "  pod  spots 
of  beans,  etc. 

5.  Kill  the  smut  spores  that   may  be  present  in  seed  oats 
by  the  use  of  formaldehyde.     In  a  barrel  place  40  gallons  of 
water  and  add  one  pint  of  formaldehyde  of  standard  strength 


202  WEEDS   AND    PLANT   DISEASES 

(40  per  cent).  This  will  be  enough  to  treat  40  bushels  of  oats. 
On  a  clean  floor  spread  the  grain  to  a  depth  of  about  six  inches. 
Sprinkle  the  formaldehyde  solution  over  the  grain  and  mix 
thoroughly  with  a  scoop  shovel  until  all  the  grain  is  moistened. 
Then  shovel  the  grain  into  a  pile  and  cover  it  with  sacks,  blan- 
kets, or  canvas,  and  leave  for  eight  or  ten  hours.  If  this  work 
is  done  in  the  evening,  the  grain  can  be  left  in  the  pile  over 
night  and  sown  the  next  day.  If  a  drill  is  used,  the  grain  should 
be  spread  out  and  dried  before  sowing.  If  sacks  are  used  to 
hold  the  grain,  they  should  be  well  moistened  with  the  solution. 
For  experimental  purposes  a  small  amount  of  oats  can  be 
treated  with  a  proportionately  small  quantity  of  the  formalde- 
hyde solution.  Sow  the  treated  grain  in  a  small  plot  of  ground, 
and  in  another  plot  a  considerable  distance  away  sow  untreated 
grain.  When  the  oats  are  nearly  ripe,  look  for  smut  in  the  plots. 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins :  28,  Weeds,  and  how  to  kill  them ;  86, 
Thirty  poisonous  plants  of  United  States;  219,  Lessons  from 
the  grain-rust  epidemic  of  1904;  221,  Fungous  diseases  of  the 
cranberry ;  243,  Fungicides  and  their  use  in  preventing  diseases 
of  fruits;  250,  Prevention  of  stinking  smut  of  wheat  and  loose 
smut  of  oats ;  368,  Eradication  of  bindweed,  or  wild  morning- 
glory  ;  489,  Two  dangerous  imported  plant  diseases. 


LESSON  XLV 
MIXED   FARMING 

Mixed  farming  is  the  raising  of  crops  and  live  stock 
on  the  same  farm.  Some  kinds  of  animals  are  kept  on 
nearly  all  farms.  Horses  and  mules  are  used  for  work, 
cattle  for  beef  and  milk,  hogs  for  pork,  sheep  for  mutton 
and  wool,  and  poultry  for  eggs  and  meat. 

Advantages.  -  -  There  are  many  advantages  in  rais- 
ing live  stock  on  the  farm  in  connection  with  growing 
crops.  Plants  require  organic  matter  in  the  soil  as 
well  as  mineral  matter,  and  if  crops  alone  are  raised 
and  sold  off  the  farm,  there  can  be  very  little  return  of 
organic  matter  to  the  soil.  If  the  plants  that  are 
raised  on  the  farm  are  fed  to  stock,  a  large  amount  of 
organic  matter  in  the  form  of  manure  is  returned  to 
the  soil  and  thus  the  farm  keeps  up  in  fertility.  It  has 
been  observed  that  live-stock  farmers  are  nearly  always 
prosperous. 

There  is  another  advantage  in  raising  animals  and 
crops  on  the  farm.  Animals  must  be  cared  for  every 
day,  but  they  require  more  attention  in  the  winter 
than  in  the  summer.  During  the  summer  season  the 
labor  is  put  on  the  fields  to  produce  the  crops ;  and  in 

203 


204  MIXED   FARMING 

the  winter  season  the  labor  is  used  to  feed  the  animals, 
milk  the  cows,  and  give  other  needed  attention.  If 
crops  alone  are  raised,  there  is  an  excess  of  work 
during  the  summer  and  too  little  labor  during  the 
winter.  In  order  to  support  the  animals  a  considerable 
acreage  must  be  put  in  grass,  hay,  or  other  forage 
crops;  and  so  there  will  be  a  rotation  of  crops  that 
will  help  to  keep  the  soil  fertile. 

Feeders.  —  Many  farmers  use  all  their  land  for  the 
production  of  crops  in  the  summer,  and  then  buy 
"  feeders  "  for  winter  feeding.  The  name  "  feeders  " 
is  given  to  animals  that  are  sold  to  the  farmers  to  be 
fattened  for  the  market.  In  some  parts  of  the  country 
the  feeding  of  cattle  and  sheep  has  become  an  important 
industry.  Many  of  these  animals  are  bought  from 
the  grazing  sections  of  the  country  and  then  well  fed 
with  grain  and  hay  until  they  are  ready  for  the  market. 
A  farmer  with  80  or  160  acres  of  land  with  a  good  part 
of  it  in  clover  or  alfalfa  will  buy  a  large  number  of  lambs, 
older  sheep,  or  cattle ;  and  if  he  does  not  have  enough 
grain  to  feed  with  the  hay,  he  buys  corn,  or  other 
grain  or  mill  stuffs.  Sheep  will  usually  get  fat  enough 
for  market  in  three  or  four  months'  time.  Beef  cattle 
are  usually  fed  five  or  six  months  before  marketing. 
This  kind  of  farming  enables  the  farmer  to  dispose  of 
his  hay  and  grain  by  feeding  it  on  his  own  farm,  sup- 
plies a  large  amount  of  manure  for  his  fields,  and  fur- 
nishes a  pleasant  and  profitable  work  through  the  win- 
ter months,  when,  otherwise,  he  would  be  idle. 


MIXED   FARMING  205 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  "  mixed  farming  "  ? 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  disadvantages  of  raising  only  crops 
on  a  farm  ? 

3.  How  does  the  raising  of  farm  animals  help  to  maintain 
soil  fertility? 

4.  How  does  the  raising  of  crops  and  animals  affect  the  dis- 
tribution of  farm  labor  through  the  year  ? 

5.  In  your  locality  what  crops  are  mainly  disposed  of  by 
feeding  to  animals  on  the  farm  where  the  crops  are  grown  ? 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  192,  Barnyard  manure;  242,  Example 
of  model  farming;  272,  Successful  hog  and  seed-corn  farm; 
299,  Diversified  farming  under  plantation  system;  310,  Suc- 
cessful Alabama  diversification  farm. 


LESSON  XLVI 
HORSES 

A  faithful  friend.  -  -  The  horse  is  man's  noblest  friend 
among  the  farm  animals.  He  is  the  main  source  of 
power  for  the  pulling  of  farm  machinery,  the  hauling 
of  loads,  and  the  transportation  of  people,  and  is  al- 
most indispensable  on  any  farm.  The  horse  has  such 
power  and  endurance,  is  so  easily  trained  and  controlled, 
and  possesses  such  useful  traits  that  no  other  animal 
or  power  can  take  his  place.  If  one  becomes  lost  in 
a  wilderness  or  in  the  darkness  of  night,  a  faithful 
horse  may  be  depended  upon  to  lead  the  way  to  safety, 
if  allowed  to  go  the  way  he  chooses,  for  the  horse  never 
becomes  "  turned  around  "  or  gets  lost. 

A  source  of  power.  —  In  factories  the  energy  that 
runs  the  machinery  comes  mainly  from  steam  power 
and  water  power.  On  farms  most  of  the  heavy  work 
is  done  by  horses.  Almost  every  farmer  must  have  one 
or  more  teams  of  horses  to  do  the  plowing,  harrowing, 
harvesting,  and  the  hauling  of  farm  products  to  mar- 
ket. In  the  cities  also  most  of  the  local  transportation 
of  goods  is  done  by  horses. 

Much  grain  and  hay  required.  -  -  The  use  of  horses 
for  riding,  driving,  and  pulling  heavy  loads  requires 
the  growing  of  large  forage  and  grain  crops  to  feed  these 

206 


HORSES 


207 


208 


HORSES 


SHETLAND  PONY 


animals.     In  the  cities  the  millions  of  horses  create 
a  considerable  market  for  hay  and  grain. 

Breeds.  --  Hordes 
have  been  domesti- 
cated and  used  by  man 
for  many  centuries ; 
and  many  kinds  of 
horses  have  been  de- 
veloped for  different 
purposes.  There  are 
four  general  classes  of 
horses,  —  ponies,  light  horses  for  racing  and  riding, 
carriage  horses,  and  draft  horses.  To  the  many  well- 
known  breeds  should  be  added  a  large  class  of  medium- 
weight  horses  of  no  particular  breed,  which  are  most 
used  on  American  farms. 

The  Shetland  and  Iceland  ponies  are  used  as  pets 
for  children.  The 
mustang,  Indian 
pony,  and  cow  pony 
are  used  extensively 
in  herding.  The 
principal  breeds  of 
light  horses  are 
the  Thoroughbred, 
American  trotting 
horse,  Kentucky  sad- 
dle horse,  and  light,  general  purpose  breeds,  as  the 
Hambletonian  and  Morgan  horses.  The  principal 


CARRIAGE  HORSE 


HORSES 


209 


breeds  of  carriage  horses  are  the  French  Coach ;  Ger- 
man Coach ;  and  English  Coach,  such  as  the  Hackney 
and  Cleveland  Bay.  The  principal  breeds  of  draft 
horses  are  the  Percheron  from  France,  the  Belgian  from 
Belgium,  and  the 
Shire,  Clydesdale, 
and  Suffold  Punch 
from  Great  Britain. 

Length  of  service. 
-  Horses  are  old 
enough  to  be  useful 
at  the  age  of  three 
years;  and  if  well 
cared  for,  they  will 
continue  to  be  of 
service  until  they  are  twenty  or  more  years  old.  When 
they  reach  the  working  age,  they  are  broken  or  put 
through  a  course  of  training  which  fits  them  for  the 
work  they  must  do. 

The  mule,  which  is  a  cross  between  the  horse  and 
the  donkey,  is  used  as  a  draft  animal.  It  is  able  to 
pull  very  heavy  loads  and  endure  other  hard  conditions 
of  life. 


DRAFT  HORSE 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  animals  are  used  for  power  purposes? 

2.  What  qualities  make  the  horse  so  valuable  as  a   draft 
animal  ? 

3.  What  are  the  four  general  classes  of  horses? 

B.  AND  D.  AC.  —  14 


210  HORSES 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  leading  breeds  of  each  class  ?    What 
breeds  are  raised  in  your  locality  ? 

5.  What  qualities  make  the  mule  a  valuable  draft  animal? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

i.  Obtain  from  the  Agricultural  College  of  your  state  score 
cards  for  judging  horses.  Get  a  farmer  who  is  a  good  judge  of 
horses  to  help  you  in  this  work.  (It  will  not  be  possible  for 
many  schools  to  make  the  judging  of  horses  and  other  animals 
a  part  of  the  regular  school  work ;  but  by  securing  the  aid  of 
farmers  who  are  good  judges  of  farm  animals  some  useful  study 
of  these  animals  can  be  made.) 

REFERENCES 

Write  to  the  Agricultural  College  of  your  state  for  bulletins 
on  horses  and  other  farm  animals. 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  170,  Principles  of  horse  feeding;  179, 
Horseshoeing. 

Selected  Readings :  The  Arab  to  his  Favorite  Steed,  — 
Caroline  Norton;  The  Blood  Horse, — Bryan  Waller  Proctor; 
Black  Beauty,  —  Anna  Sewell;  The  Horse  Fair,  —  James 
Baldwin ;  Kentucky  Belle,  —  Constance  F.  Woolson. 


LESSON  XLVII 
CATTLE 

Main  uses.  —  Cattle  are  raised  mainly  for  meat  and 
milk.  In  a  few  places  they  are  still  used  as  draft 
animals.  They  are  raised  on  nearly  every  farm,  and 


CATTLE  ox  RANGE 


in  the  West  great  herds  of  cattle  pasture  on  the  wild 
grasses  of  the  open  range.  Many  people  in  towns  and 
villages  keep  one  or  more  cows  to  supply  milk,  cream, 
and  butter. 


212 


CATTLE 


Ayrshire 


Guernsey 


Galloway 


Jersey 


Shorthorn  Hereford 

DIFFERENT  BREEDS  OF  Cows 


CATTLE 


Beef  cattle  are  raised  for  meat.  Some  of  the  prin- 
cipal breeds  of  beef  cattle  are  Shorthorns,  Herefords, 
Polled  Angus,  and  Galloways.  Dairy  cattle  are  raised 
for  milk.  The  Jerseys,  Guernseys,  Holsteins,  Ayr- 
shires,  and  Swiss 
are  some  of  the 
leading  breeds  of 
this  class.  The 
general  purpose 
cattle  are  used  for 
both  meat  and 
milk.  The  Devons 
and  the  Red  Polled 

••  •    TTF 

A  CLEAN  DAIRY  MAKES 
CLEAN  MILK 

cattle  belong  to  this 
class.  In  the  west- 
ern grazing  states 
the  beef  breeds  are 
raised  almost  ex- 
clusively. In  graz- 
ing districts  near 
our  large  cities,  in 
the  central  and  eastern  sections  of  the  United  States, 
the  dairy  breeds  are  kept  in  large  numbers.  In  the 
general  farming  districts  the  greatest  number  of  cattle 
belong  to  the  beef-and-dairy  types. 

Feeds.  —  Cattle  eat  pasture  grass,  hay,  and  grain. 


CLEAN  MILK  MAKES  GOOD  BITTER 


214  CATTLE 

Cows  that  give  milk  are  given  feeds  rich  in  protein, 
while  beef  cattle  are  fed  corn  or  other  grain  that  con- 
tains a  good  deal  of  starch  and  sugar  in  it.  During 
the  growing  season  cattle  should  have  green  pastures 
to  graze,  or  should  be  fed  succulent  plants  or  soiling 
crops,  such  as  green  clover,  alfalfa,  and  corn.  In  win- 
ter they  may  be  fed  corn  silage  or  root  crops  along  with 
hay  and  grain.  Corn  silage  is  one  of  the  most  important 
winter  feeds  for  milk  cows. 

Dairy  products.  —  Milk,  and  the  cream,  butter,  and 
cheese  which  are  made  from  milk,  are  called  dairy  prod- 
ucts ;  and  they  are  used  so  extensively  that  the  dairy 
business  is  a  very  important  industry. 

Other  products.  —  Enormous  quantities  of  beef  are 
used  as  food,  and  millions  of  cattle  are  slaughtered 
and  converted  into  beef  in  the  great  packing  houses 
of  our  large  cities.  The  skins  or  hides  of  cattle  are 
tanned  into  leather,  which  is  used  to  make  gloves, 
boots  and  shoes,  and  harness.  Sometimes  the  skins 
with  the  hair  attached  are  tanned  into  robes  and  over- 
coats. The  skins  of  Galloway  cattle,  because  of  their 
curly  hair,  are  often  used  for  this  purpose.  The  hair 
is  used  in  the  making  of  plaster ;  the  horns  and  hoofs 
are  used  in  making  glue  and  gelatin ;  and  the  bones, 
blood,  and  other  wastes  are  used  in  making  commercial 
fertilizers. 

QUESTIONS 

i.  What  are  some  of  the  leading  breeds  of  beef  cattle?  Of 
dairy  cattle  ? 


CATTLE 


215 


2.  What  breeds  of  cattle  are  raised  on  the  farms  in  your 
locality  ? 

3.  What  are  the  leading  products  obtained  from  cattle? 

4.  Under  what  conditions  are  dairy  cattle  more  profitable 
than  beef  cattle  ? 

5.  What  farm  products  are  used  for  the  winter  feeding  of 
cattle? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  If  possible,  visit  a  factory  that  manufactures  one  or  more 
dairy  products.     Study  the  machinery  and  methods   used  in 
the  making  of  the  products. 

2.  Obtain  from  the  Agricultural  College  of  your  state  score 
cards  for  judging  dairy  cattle  and  beef  cattle,  and  get  a  farmer 
who  is  a  good  judge  of  cattle  to  help  you  judge  a  dairy  cow  and 
a  fat  steer. 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins :  55,  Dairy  herd,  its  formation  and  manage- 
ment; 71,  Some  essentials  in  beef  production;  151,  Dairying 
in  the  South;  152,  Scabies  of  cattle;  166,  Cheese  making  on 
the  farm  ;  206,  Milk  fever,  its  simple  and  successful  treatment ; 
241,  Butter  making  on  the  farm;  258,  Texas  or  tick  fever  and 
its  prevention ;  261,  Cattle  tick  in  its  relation  to  Southern  agri- 
culture ;  280,  Profitable  tenant  dairy  farm ;  348,  Bacteria  in 
milk ;  349,  Dairy  industry  in  the  South ;  350,  Dehorning  of 
cattle;  351,  Tuberculin  test  of  cattle  for  tuberculosis;  439, 
Anthrax,  with  special  reference  to  its  suppression ;  473,  Tuber- 
culosis ;  498,  Methods  of  exterminating  the  Texas-fever  tick. 


LESSON  XL VIII 
SHEEP  AND    GOATS 

An  ancient  industry.  —  For  ages  the  herding  of  sheep 
has  been  an  important  industry.  Before  man  began 
to  till  the  soil,  the  shepherds  tended  their  flocks  in 
mountain  pastures,  and  in  dry  lands  where  sheep  were 
the  only  animals  that  could  live  on  the  scanty  pas- 
turage. The  shepherds  watching  their  flocks  by  night 
on  the  Judean  hills  are  closely  associated  with  the 
greatest  event  in  Biblical  history.  One  of  the  most 
beautiful  bits  of  literature  is  the  Twenty-third  Psalm, 
which  expresses,  in  terms  of  the  shepherd  and  the  sheep, 
faith  in  Divine  care. 

Uses.  —  Sheep  are  raised  for  wool  and  meat ;  and 
the  two  general  classes  of  sheep  are  the  mutton  breeds 
and  the  wool  breeds.  The  wool  breeds  have  been  de- 
veloped mainly  for  wool  •  production.  The  Merinos 
are  fine-wool  sheep ;  the  Shropshire  Downs,  Oxford 
Downs,  and  other  Downs  are  medium-wool  sheep ; 
and  the  Cotswold,  Lincoln,  Cheviot,  and  Leicester 
breeds  are  long-wool  sheep.  The  Down  breeds  are 
also  good  mutton  sheep.  The  Horned  Dor  sets  are 
raised  principally  for  the  meat  of  the  lambs ;  the  Lin- 
coln and  Cotswold  breeds  are  also  good  mutton  types. 

216 


SHEEP   AND    GOATS 


217 


Shropshire 


Hampshire  Down  Ram 


Oxford  Down  Ram 


Cheviot  Ram 


bouthdown  Ram 


Lincoln  Ram 


DIFFERENT  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 


2i8  SHEEP   AND    GOATS 

Wool  is  the  most  important  of  all  animal  fibers,  and 
is  used  extensively  in  the  manufacture  of  cloth  and 


SHEARING  SHEEP 

carpets.  The  wool  is  sheared  from  the  sheep  in  late 
spring  or  early  summer.  On  many  farms  the  sheep  are 
washed  before  shearing;  but  on  the  ranges  of  the  West- 
ern states,  the  wool  is  clipped  without  washing,  and  is 
sent  to  wool-scouring  mills.  In  the  woolen  mills  it  is 
woven  into  cloth  for  clothing,  blankets,  and  other  woven 
goods.  The  coarsest  wool  is  used  to  make  carpets, 
and  the  fibers  not  good  for  spinning  are  made  into  felt 
hats  and  felt  boots.  The  skins  of  sheep  are  used  to 
make  many  kinds  of  soft  leather. 

Mutton  and  lamb.  —  By  many  people,  mutton  is 
regarded  as  a  choice  meat.     Fat  lamb  is  especially 


SHEEP   AND    GOATS 


219 


prized,  and  many  thousands  of  lambs  are  used  each 
year  for  this  purpose.  Lambs  make  more  meat  for 
the  amount  of  food  eaten  than  any  other  animal. 
The  meat  is  also  fatter  than  that  of  other  animals. 

Feed.  —  Sheep  will  eat  a  great  variety  of  feed.  Their 
small  mouths  and  good  teeth  enable  them  to  bite  closer 
to  the  ground,  and  thus  to  live  on  shorter  grasses  than 
other  farm  animals.  They  will  eat  the  leaves  and  buds 
of  a  large  number  of  shrubs  and  other  coarse  plants. 
They  may  be  fattened  for  market  by  feeding  hay  and 
silage,  or  corn  or  other  grains,  or  peas  and  other  legumes. 


SHEEP  GRAZING 


Root  crops,  such  as  turnips  and  sugar  beets,  are  good 
food  for  sheep. 

Shelter.  —  In  keeping  sheep  through  the  winter  it 


220 


SHEEP  AND    GOATS 


is  important  to  have  them  sheltered  in  dry  places  that 
are  not  too  warm.  The  sheep  kept  through  the  winter 
are  mainly  breeding  ewes,  and  it  is  important  that  they 
shall  not  be  overfed.  Their  food  should  be  muscle- 
forming  rather  than  fattening. 

Goats.  —  In  many  parts  of  the  world  goats  are 
raised  on  a  large  scale  for  milk,  meat,  and  the  fleece, 

called  mohair.  The  milk  goat 
has  been  called  "  the  poor 
man's  cow."  Good  milk 
goats  will  give  from  four  to  six 
quarts  of  milk  per  day,  and, 
considering  their  size,  the 
yield  is  greater  than  that  from 
cows.  The  milk  is  considered 
more  healthful  than  cow's 
milk  and  is  used  to  feed 
young  children. 

In  the  United  States  goats  are  not  raised  extensively, 
except  in  a  few  Southern  and  Western  states.  In  most 
localities  no  goats  are  seen,  except  an  occasional  pet 
harnessed  to  a  boy's  wagon.  Texas,  New  Mexico, 
and  Arizona  lead  the  states  in  the  number  of  goats. 

Angora  goats.  —  Most  of  the  goats  raised  for  com- 
mercial purposes  are  Angora  goats,  a  breed  that  orig- 
inated in  Asia  Minor.  These  animals  are  kept  to 
furnish  meat,  skins,  and  the  long,  silky  mohair.  They 
will  eat  coarse  weeds,  and  the  leaves  and  twigs  of  bushes. 
This  browsing  habit  makes  them  useful  in  cleaning 


ANGORA  GOAT 


SHEEP    AND    GOATS  221 

pastures  that  are  overgrown  with  brush  and  weeds. 
In  the  South  and  West,  where  the  climate  is  hot,  the 
Angoras  are  sheared  twice  each  year,  in  the  spring  and 
fall.  In  the  Northern  states  they  are  sheared  only  in 
the  spring.  The  mohair  is  used  to  make  cloth,  plush, 
and  carpets.  Much  of  the  plush  used  on  upholstered 
furniture  and  car  seats  is  made  of  mohair.  The  skins, 
when  tanned  with  the  white,  silky  hair  on  them,  make 
beautiful  rugs  and  lap  robes. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  two  main  classes  of  sheep? 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  leading  breeds  of  each  class? 

3.  What  are  the  leading  sheep-raising  states  of  the  United 
States?     (See  Yearbook  of  Agriculture.) 

4.  What  products  are  obtained  from  sheep? 

5.  What  products  are  obtained  from  goats  ? 

6.  What  are  the  leading  goat-raising  states? 

7.  Why  is  the  extensive  raising  of  sheep  and  goats  generally 
confined  to  rugged  sections  of  a  country? 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins  :  49,  Sheep  feeding ;  96,  Raising  sheep  for 
mutton  ;  137,  Angora  goat ;   159,  Scab  in  sheep. 


LESSON  XLIX 
SWINE 

Raised  for  meat.  —  Swine,  or  hogs,  as  they  are  com- 
monly called,  are  the  only  farm  animals  that  are  raised 
primarily  for  meat.  Corn  is  so  largely  used  to  feed 
hogs  that  the  abundance  of  corn  in  the  United  States 
makes  this  country  the  leading  swine-producing  coun- 
try in  the  world.  The  corn  belt  of  the  United  States 
is  also  the  swine  section  of  the  country. 

Variety  of  feeds. 
—Although  corn  is 
used  almost  exclu- 
sively to  fatten 
hogs  for  market, 
yet  these  animals 
will  eat  roots,  tu- 
bers, grubs,  snakes, 
nuts,  grains,  alfalfa, 
green  grass,  fruits, 
and  many  kinds  of 
kitchen  wastes.  They  will  pick  up  scattered  peas, 
grains,  or  other  seeds  which  may  be  left  scattered  in 
fields  or  where  other  stock  are  fed.  They  are  the  only 
farm  animals  that  can  dig  into  the  soil  for  food.  They 


PIGS  FEEDING 


SWINE 


223 


have  shovel-shaped  noses  with 
which  they  dig  up  the  ground 
and  gather  such  things  as  wild 
roots,  potatoes,  artichokes, 
peanuts,  and  other  under- 
ground foods.  Because  they 
can  eat  such  a  variety  of  feeds 
they  may  often  be  kept  at 
little  cost,  and  they  are  some- 
times called  the  "  economy 
animals  "  of  the  farm. 

Classes  of  swine. --There 
are  two  classes  of  swine,  —  the 
bacon  hog  and  the  lard  hog. 
The  difference  between  these 
two  classes  seems  to  have 
been  produced  by  differences 
in  food.  The  Yorkshire  and 
Tamworth  breeds,  which  came 
from  England,  are  bacon  hogs. 
The  principal  lard  hogs  are  the 
Poland-China,  Duroc  Jersey, 
Chester  White,  and  Essex. 
The  Berkshire,  which  came 
from  England,  is  a  lard  type 
of  hog  when  fed  on  fattening 
foods,  but  is  intermediate  when 
fed  on  food  that  has  less  carbo- 
hydrates and  more  protein  in  it. 


Tamworth 


Poland-China 


Chester  White 


Duroc  Jersey 
BRKKDS  OF  SWIM: 


224  SWINE 

Pork  constitutes  a  large  part  of  our  flesh  foods. 
The  cured  meat  keeps  for  a  long  time,  and  is  easily 
handled  and  shipped.  The  fat  of  hogs  is  made  into 
lard  which  is  largely  used  in  cooking.  The  skins  are 
sometimes  tanned  into  leather,  and  the  hair  is  used  for 
bristles  to  make  brushes. 

In  raising  hogs  it  should  be  remembered  that,  in 
addition  to  proper  foods,  pure  water  and  clean  quarters 
are  necessary  to  success. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  chief  food  of  hogs?     What  other  farm  prod- 
ucts are  used  as  food  for  these  animals  ? 

2.  What  are  the  two  main  classes  of  hogs?     Name  two  or 
more  breeds  of  each  class. 

3.  What  products  are  obtained  from  hogs? 

4.  What  are  the  leading  hog-raising  states  of  the  United 
States?     (See   Yearbook   of   Agriculture.)     Compare   this   list- 
of  states  with  that  of  the  leading  corn  states. 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  100,  Hog  raising  in  the  South;  205, 
Pig  management;  331,  Forage  crops  for  hogs  in  Kansas  and 
Oklahoma ;  379,  Hog  cholera ;  411,  Feeding  hogs  in  the  South ; 
438,  Hog  houses. 


LESSON  L 
POULTRY 

A  product  of  most  farms.  —  On  almost  every  farm 
one  or  more  kinds  of  poultry  are  raised ;  and  there  are 
some  large  farms  whose  entire  product  consists  of  eggs 
and  fowls.  Chickens,  turkeys,  ducks,  geese,  peacocks, 
guinea  fowls,  pheasants,  and  other  birds  raised  for  eggs, 
meat,  or  feathers  are  called  poultry.  Even  the  large 
ostriches  which  are  kept  for  their  beautiful  feathers 
may  be  regarded  as  poultry. 

Eggs.  —  Chickens  form  about  95  per  cent  of  the 
poultry  of  the  United  States,  and  their  eggs  are  the 
leading  poultry  product.  The  eggs  of  turkeys,  ducks, 
and  geese  are  sometimes  used  for  food,  but  chickens 
lay  more  and  better  eggs  than  other  fowls,  and  so  we 
seldom  find  any  but  hen's  eggs  in  the  market. 

Breeds  of  chickens. — There  are  many  breeds  and 
varieties  of  chickens.  Some  breeds,  like  the  Leghorns 
and  Minorcas,  are  raised  chiefly  for  their  eggs ;  while 
others,  like  the  Brahmas  and  Cochins,  are  raised  prin- 
cipally for  their  meat.  The  Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyan- 
dottes,  and  Rhode  Island  Reds  are  American  breeds 
of  general-purpose  chickens,  valuable  for  both  eggs 
and  meat.  There  are  some  fancy  breeds,  like  the 
Bantams,  that  have  little  practical  use. 

B.    AND    D.    AG.  —  15  225 


226 


POULTRY 


Barred  Plymouth  Rocks 


Rose-comb  Brown  Leghorns 


Rose-comb  Black  Minorcas 


American  Domimques 


Mottled  Javas  Dark  Brahmas 

BREEDS  OF  CHICKENS 


POULTRY 


227 


TURKKYS 


The  turkey  is  one  of  the  finest  meat  birds  in  the 
world.  In  our  country  the  turkey  dinner  at  Thanks- 
giving time  is  one  of  the 
important  events  of  the 
year.  These  birds  are 
of  American  origin,  and 
the  wild  turkey  is  still 
found  in  parts  of  the 
United  States. 

Ducks  and  geese  are 
raised  for  their  meat 
and  feathers.  They  are 

called  water  fowls,  because  they  have  web  feet  and 
swim  in  the  water.  They  may  be  successfully  raised, 
however,  on  farms  without  ponds  or  streams. 

Pigeons  are  raised  for  pets  and  for  food.  A  full- 
grown,  young  pigeon  ready  for  the  table  is  called  a 
squab.  Near  cities 
the  raising  of  squabs 
is  an  important  line 
of  the  poultry  busi- 
ness. 

Poultry  raising  is 
light  work  that  may 
be  done  by  women 
or  children.  There 
is  always  a  good 
market  for  the  products,  and  poultry  are  often  the 
most  profitable  animals  on  the  farm. 


228  POULTRY 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  birds  are  included  in  the  term  "  poultry  "? 

2.  What  are  the  three  general  classes  of  chickens? 

3.  What  breeds  are  raised  mainly  for  eggs?     What  breeds 
for  meat?     What  breeds  are  general-purpose  chickens? 

4.  What  breeds  are  raised  in  the  locality  in  which  you  live? 
What  breeds  do  you  know? 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  51,  Standard  varieties  of  chickens;  64, 
Ducks  and  geese ;  128,  Eggs  and  their  uses  as  food ;  177,  Squab 
raising;  182,  Poultry  as  food;  234,  Guinea  fowl  and  its  use  as 
food ;  236,  Incubation  and  incubators ;  287,  Poultry  manage- 
ment; 355,  Successful  poultry  and  dairy  farm;  357,  Methods 
of  poultry  management  at  Maine  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station ;  452,  Capons  and  caponizing. 


LESSON  LI 
INSECTS 

Honey  and  silk.  —  Of  the  thousands  of  species  of 
insects,  only  the  bees  and  silkworms  have  been  domes- 
ticated for  man's  use.  Bees  are  raised  for  the  honey 
and  wax  that  they  produce ;  and  silkworms,  for  the 
silk  fibers  that  are  woven  into  beautiful  cloth. 

The  silkworm  lives  on  the  leaves  of  the  mulberry 
tree,  and  silkworm  farming  is  carried  on  in  regions 
where  these  trees  grow.  The  silkworm  moth  lays 
eggs  in  the  summer  or  fall,  which  hatch  the  following 
spring.  The  worms  are  fed  on  mulberry  leaves  until 
they  spin  the  cocoons  from  which  we  get  the  silk  fibers. 

Bee  culture  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  kinds  of 
farming.  It  is  said  that  more  books  have  been  written 
about  bee  keeping  than  about  any  other  branch  of 
farming.  Bees  are  social  insects  that  live  together  in 
swarms.  Each  hive  or  swarm  consists  of  a  queen  bee 
which  is  the  head  of  the  swarm,  the  workers  or  bees 
that  gather  the  honey,  and  the  drones  that  do  not 
gather  honey.  The  queen  bee  lays  the  eggs  in  cells 
made  of  wax  by  the  workers.  In  other  cells  of  wax 
the  workers  store  up  honey  which  is  made  from  the 
nectar  of  flowers.  The  hives  now  used  are  made  of 

229 


230 


INSECTS 


1,  SILKWORM  EGGS 

2,  FOURTH  STAGE  WORM 

3,  PUPA  IN  COCOON 

4,  COCOON 


5,  MALE  MOTH 

6,  FEMALE  MOTH 

7,  UNSPUN  SILK 

8,  WOVEN  SILK 


INSECTS 


231 


lumber  and  have  two  or  more  stories  in  them.     In  the 
lower  story  the  eggs  are  laid  and  the  young  bees  raised, 


WORKER 


QUEEN  BEE 


DRONE 


while  in  the  upper  story  the  honey  is  stored.     Some- 
times the  bees  in  a  single  hive  gather  more  than  200 


BEE  FARMING 


232 


INSECTS 


MALE  AND  FEMALE  CATTLE  TICKS 
(Natural  Size) 


pounds  of  honey  in  a  season,  in  addition  to  that  which 
they  need  as  food  for  themselves  during  the  winter. 

Many  men,  women,  and 
children  like  to  tend  bees, 
finding  it  both  pleasant  and 
profitable  work. 

Destructive  insects.  - 
Many  insects  cause  great 
loss  by  destroying  crops, 
absorbing  vitality  from  ani- 
mals, and  spreading  diseases 
among  animals  and  people ; 
and  the  destruction  or  prevention  of  insect  enemies  is 
a  very  important  part  of  farm  practice. 

We  get  an  idea  of  the  enormous  loss  caused  by  in- 
sects when  we  see  the  damage  done  by  the  Colorado 
potato  beetle,  cutworm,  Hessian  fly,  cotton  boll- 
weevil,  apple  worm,  scale  insects,  and  the  caterpillars 
of  the  brown-tail  and  gypsy  moths.  Blood-sucking 
insects  are  not  only  trouble- 
some, but  many  of  them  are 
the  carriers  of  disease  germs 
from  the  sick  to  the  healthy. 
Texas  fever,  which  is  a  seri- 
ous handicap  to  cattle  rais- 
ing in  the  Southern  states, 
is  spread  by  the  biting  of  the 
cattle  ticks.  Yellow  fever  is  spread  only  by  the  bites 
of  the  yellow  fever  mosquito ;  and  malaria  is  carried 


COTTON  BOLL  WEEVIL 
(Magnified) 


INSECTS 


233 


by  the  malarial  mosquito.  Even  the  common  mos- 
quito is  an  intolerable  pest,  although  not  a  carrier  of 
disease.  The  house  fly,  now  called  the  typhoid  fly, 

is  often  the  agent  that  car- 
ries typhoid  germs  from  in- 
fected matter  to  our  food. 

Classes  of  insect  pests.  - 
Insect  pests  are  of  five  gen- 
eral classes  :   (i)  those  which 
eat  the  leaves  and  stems  of 


SPRAYING  TREES  AND  VEGETABLES 

plants ;     (2)   those  which  suck    the  juices  of   plants ; 

(3)  those  which  bore  into  plants,  feeding  on  the  inside 
of  tree  trunks,  stems  of  smaller  plants,  fruits,  and  seeds  ; 

(4)  those  which  suck  the  blood  of  animals ;    (5)  those 
which  are  carriers  of  infected  matter. 


234 


INSECTS 


The  leaf-feeding  insects  and  other  external  feeders 
can  be  successfully  killed  by  spraying  poisons  upon 
the  foliage.  By  eating  the  foliage  with  the  poison  on 
the  surface  these  insects  are  destroyed.  The  food  of 
the  juice-sucking  insects  cannot  be  poisoned,  and  these 
pests,  such  as  plant  lice  and  scale  insects,  are  killed 
by  poisons  sprayed  upon  their  bodies.  The  soap  and 


V 


MOSQUITO  WIGGLERS 

petroleum  emulsions  are  effective  sprays  to  kill  by  con- 
tact. The  young  worms  of  the  codling  moth  can  be 
destroyed  by  sprays  before  they  enter  the  apples. 

Mosquitoes.  —  Another  effective  method  of  dealing 
with  insect  pests  is  the  destruction  of  breeding  places. 
Mosquitoes  can  be  prevented  by  draining  marshes 
and  other  wet  places  in  which  the  eggs  are  laid.  The 
young  mosquitoes,  which  are  the  wigglers  that  we  often 
see  in  standing  water,  may  be  easily  killed  by  pouring 
kerosene  over  the  water. 

Destruction  of  breeding  places.  —  By  preventing 
the  access  of  flies  to  garbage  and  stable  manure,  the 


INSECTS  235 

breeding  of  millions  can  be  prevented.  Brush  and 
other  rubbish  in  orchards  and  forests  are  the  breeding 
places  of  many  insect  pests.  The  burning  of  such 
breeding  spots  is  an  extremely  effective  method  of 
reducing  insect  enemies  of  orchards  and  forests. 

Rotation  of  crops.  —  Insects  that  attack  one  kind 
of  crop  may  be  starved  to  death  by  planting  another 
kind  of  crop  on  the  land.  Thus  rotation  of  crops  re- 
duces the  number  of  insects.  Some  crops  may  be 
saved  from  insect  attacks  by  early  or  late  planting. 
For  example,  if  cotton  is  planted  early,  the  bolls  are 
formed  before  the  boll  weevils  have  become  numerous ; 
and  the  late  planting  of  wheat  saves  it  from  the  Hes- 
sian fly. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  most  destructive  insects? 

2.  What  insects  are  useful  ? 

3.  What  are  the  most  important  insect  enemies  of  wheat? 
Of  corn  ?     Of  cotton  ?     Of  fruit  trees  ?     Of  shade  trees  ? 

4.  What  are  the  five  classes  of  insect  pests  ? 

5.  What  disease  common  to  the  United  States  is  transmitted 
by  mosquitoes?     What  tropical  disease  is  transmitted  by  a 
mosquito  of  tropical   regions?     What  other  diseases  are  fre- 
quently carried  by  insects? 

6.  What  cattle  disease  is  transmitted  by  insects  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

i.  Study  the  life  history  of  the  mosquito  by  observation.  In 
the  fall  or  spring  place  a  tub  of  rain  water  out  of  doors,  and  each 
morning  look  for  floating  masses  of  mosquito  eggs.  Each  mass 


236  INSECTS 

of  eggs  looks  like  a  small  flake  of  soot.  In  a  day  or  two  the  eggs 
will  hatch  and  the  tiny  wigglers  can  be  seen  in  the  water.  Watch 
the  growth  of  these  wigglers.  After  several  days  they  enter 
the  pupa  stage  and  spend  most  of  the  time  floating  head  down 
from  the  surface.  In  a  few  days  the  adult  mosquito  emerges 
from  the  old  pupa  case.  The  tub  should  be  covered  in  order 
to  keep  in  the  mosquitoes. 

2.  In  a  dish  of  water  containing  wigglers  add  a  drop  or 
two  of  kerosene.     Notice  how  soon  the  wigglers  die.     This  is 
the  method  of  destroying  mosquitoes  on  a  large  scale  in  marshy 
land. 

3.  Destroy  the  plant  lice,  other  soft  insects,  and  scale  in- 
sects, which  may  infest  house  plants,  by  spraying  with  kerosene 
emulsion.     Make  the  emulsion  by  dissolving  one  ounce  of  soap 
in  a  pint  of  boiling  water  and  then  adding  one  quart  of  kerosene. 
Have  no  fire  near  when  the  oil  is  added.     Only  a  small  part  of 
this  emulsion  is  used  for  a  single  spraying.     For  plant  lice  and 
other  soft  insects  dilute  the  emulsion  with  1 5  or  20  parts  of  rain 
water  before  spraying.     For  scale  insects  dilute  with  10  parts 
of  water. 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  397,  Bees;  444,  Remedies  and  preven- 
tives against  mosquitoes ;  447,  Bees ;  450,  Some  facts  about 
malaria ;  453,  Danger  of  general  spread  of  the  Gypsy  and  Brown- 
tail  Moths  through  imported  nursery  stock ;  459,  House  flies ; 
503,  Comb  honey. 


LESSON  LII 
FOOD   OF   FARM   ANIMALS 

Food  necessary  for  growth.  —  Besides  air  and  water, 
all  animals,  as  well  as  plants,  must  have  food  in  order 
to  live  and  grow ;  and  the  feeding  of  animals  is  a  large 
part  of  the  fanner's  work. 

A  food  is  any  substance  that  can  be  eaten  and  used 
in  the  body  to  produce  growth  and  energy.  Every 
animal  is  provided  with  automatic  indicators  of  its 
needs.  If  it  is  thirsty,  the  body  needs  water ;  and  if  it 
is  hungry,  the  body  needs  food.  The  natural  appetite 
tells  also  what  kind  of  food  the  body  needs.  Dif- 
ferent kinds  of  animals  require  different  kinds  of  food. 
For  example,  a  horse  gets  hungry  for  oats  and  hay, 
while  such  things  would  not  taste  good  to  a  dog,  be- 
cause the  dog  requires  meat.  Most  animals  need  a 
variety  of  foods.  A  man  would  starve  if  fed  on  bread 
alone,  because  it  does  not  contain  everything  he  needs. 

Materials  in  food.  —  In  addition  to  water,  there  are 
four  kinds  of  materials  in  food  ;  and  all  animals  need 
these  materials  in  the  right  proportions.  These  ma- 
terials are  minerals,  proteins,  carbohydrates,  and  fats. 
The  minerals,  with  the  exception  of  salt,  are  usually 
present  in  sufficient  quantities  in  the  natural  foods. 

237 


238  FOOD   OF   FARM   ANIMALS 

Small  amounts  of  salt  must  be  fed  to  farm  animals  in 
most  regions.  The  farmer  in  the  British  Isles  does  not 
need  to  give  salt  to  his  cattle,  for  the  salt  air  from  the 
sea  gives  a  saltness  to  the  pasture  grasses. 

Protein  is  the  part  of  food  that  contains  nitrogen, 
and  is  the  muscle-forming  substance  in  food.  Albumin 
in  the  white  of  egg,  myosin  in  lean  meat,  casein  in  the 
curd  of  milk,  and  gluten  in  wheat  grain  are  familiar 
examples  of  protein.  More  or  less  protein  is  found  in 
all  vegetable  and  animal  food  products. 

Starch  and  sugar  are  common  examples  of  carbo- 
hydrates. The  carbohydrates  supply  energy  to  ani- 
mals, in  the  form  of  heat  and  work.  Carbohydrates 
may  be  converted  by  the  animals  into  fat.  An  animal 
that  fattens  easily  has  the  power  to  convert  the  sugar 
and  starch  of  its  food  into  fat. 

Fats.  —  The  lard  of  hogs,  the  tallow  of  cattle  and 
sheep,  and  butter  are  well-known  fats.  In  vegetable 
foods  there  is  some  fat.  Nuts  and  corn  contain  con- 
siderable fat,  and  cottonseed  oil  and  olive  oil  are  oily 
fats.  The  fat  in  the  grain  and  other  foods  has  the 
same  use  in  the  body  of  an  animal  that  starch  and 
sugar  have. 

A  balanced  ration  for  an  animal  is  the  right  amount 
of  food  containing  the  proper  proportions  of  proteins, 
carbohydrates,  and  fat.  For  example,  a  cow  that 
weighs  1000  pounds  and  gives  22  pounds  of  milk  per  day 
ought  to  eat  about  29  pounds  (dry  weight)  of  food  in 
which  there  are  2.5  pounds  of  protein,  13  pounds  of 


FOOD   OF   FARM   ANIMALS  239 

carbohydrates,  and  .5  pound  of  fat.  She  would  get 
close  to  this  amount  and  proportion,  if  she  were  fed 
15  pounds  of  corn  fodder,  10  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay,  10 
pounds  sugar  beets,  and  8  pounds  wheat  bran  each  day. 
If  she  gives  more  milk,  or  is  a  larger  cow,  she  will 
need  more  food.  Fattening  animals  should  be  given 
feed  that  contains  a  high  proportion  of  carbohydrates 
and  fat.  Milk  contains  much  protein,  and  therefore 
dairy  cattle  should  have  feed  that  contains  a  greater 
proportion  of  protein  than  that  of  fattening  steers. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  In  addition  to  water,  what  are  the  four  classes  of  materials 
in  foods? 

2.  What  foods  are  rich  in  protein  ? 

3.  What  foods  are  rich  in  carbohydrates? 

4.  What  seeds  used  as  food  contain  a  large  amount  of  fat? 

5.  What  is  a  balanced  ration? 

6.  How  should  the  food  of  a  dairy  cow  differ  from  that  of  a 
fattening  steer? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  Place  a  small  quantity  of  flour  in  a  muslin  bag.     Knead 
the  flour  in  a  vessel  of  water  until  all  the  starch  of  the  flour  is 
removed.     The  gummy  substance  left  in  the  bag  is  gluten,  the 
protein  of  wheat. 

2.  Examine  the  curd  of  milk.     This  is  casein,  the  protein  of 
milk. 

2.   Crush  the  seeds  of  flax  and  cotton  on  a  sheet  of  white 
paper.     Note  the  oily  spots  on  the  paper.     Note  also  the  oily 


240  FOOD    OF   FARM   ANIMALS 

feeling  of  the  crushed  seeds.  From  soaked  grains  of  corn  re- 
move the  germs  or  embryos  and  test  in  the  same  way  for  the 
presence  of  oil  or  fat. 

3.  Make  a  careful  study  of  bulletins  on  the  feeding  of  animals 
and  determine  a  balanced  ration  for  a  dairy  cow  of  a  definite 
weight,  using  feeds  produced  on  farms  in  your  locality.  Deter- 
mine a  balanced  ration  for  a  fattening  steer  of  definite  weight. 

REFERENCES 

Write  to  the  Agricultural  College  of  your  state  for  bulletins  on 
the  feeding  of  animals. 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  346,  Computation  of  rations  for  farm 
animals  by  use  of  energy  values. 


LESSON  LIH 
THE  FARMER'S  FRIENDS 

Animal  life.  —  There  are  many  birds,  insects,  and 
other  animals  that  are  helpful  to  the  farmer.  It  is 
wrong  to  kill  wantonly  any  living  thing,  and  it  is  a 
greater  wrong  to  kill  animals  that  serve  us  only  while 
living. 

Uses  of  birds.  —  Nearly  all  birds  do  far  more  good 
than  harm.  While  much  can  be  said  against  the  Eng- 
lish sparrow,  yet  this  bird  eats  large  quantities  of  in- 
sects and  weed  seeds.  Crows,  blackbirds,  and  wood- 
peckers do  considerable  damage,  but  by  destroying 
insect  pests  they  do  more  good  than  harm.  Some  of 
the  most  useful  birds  are  the  quail,  kingbird,  phcebe, 
meadowlark,  cuckoos,  orioles,  native  sparrows,  wrens, 
chickadee,  bluebird,  and  robin.  A  great  number  of 
other  birds  may  be  added  to  this  list.  Apart  from 
their  usefulness  the  birds  are  attractive  because  of 
their  songs  and  plumage,  and  all  birds  should  be  pro- 
tected until  it  is  proved  beyond  a  reasonable  doubt  that 
they  are  more  harmful  than  useful.  The  damage  done 
by  birds  in  eating  fruit  and  grain  is  trifling  compared 
with  the  good  done  in  eating  countless  millions  of  nox- 
ious insects  and  weed  seeds. 

B.  AND  D.  AG. 16  24! 


242 


THE   FARMER'S   FRIENDS 


Yellow-billed  Cuckoo  Carolina  Wren 

SOME  USEFUL  BIRDS 


THE    FARMER'S    FRIENDS 


243 


Useful  insects.  —  Many  insects  are  useful  because 
they  destroy  a  large  number  of  injurious  insects.  The 
ground  beetles,  tiger  beetles,  mud  wasps,  ladybird 
beetles,  and  ichneumon  flies  belong  to  the  group  of 
useful  insects.  The  ladybird  beetle  is  of  great  impor- 
tance in  destroying  the 
San  Jose  scale  insects 
that  infest  the  citrus 
orchards  of  California. 
The  ichneumon  flies  de- 
stroy the  larvae  of  moths 
and  butterflies  by  laying 
eggs  on  or  in  the  bodies 
of  the  caterpillars.  The 
eggs  hatch  into  small 

TOAD 

maggots    that   kill   the 

caterpillars.  The  bees  not  only  gather  honey,  but 
fertilize  flowers  by  carrying  pollen  from  one  flower  to 
another.  Without  this  pollination  by  bees  we  cannot 
raise  clover  seed.  Farmers  are  learning  how  to  make 
use  of  friendly  insects,  and  are  importing  some  kinds 
from  foreign  countries  to  help  destroy  injurious  insects. 
The  toad  is  a  great  friend  to  the  farmer,  and  especially 
to  the  gardener.  This  animal  eats  a  remarkably  large 
number  of  cutworms,  army  worms,  caterpillars,  gypsy 
moths,  brown-tail  moths,  rose  chafers,  wireworms^ 
potato  beetles,  thousand-legged  worms,  sow  bugs,  and 
snails.  Toads  are  so  valuable  that  they  ought  to  be 
protected.  In  gardens,  natural  shelters  should  be 


244  THE   FARMER'S   FRIENDS 

made  for  them,  and  the  thoughtless  cruelty  of  the  small 
boy  should  be  stopped. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  In  what  ways  do  useful  birds  help  the  farmer? 

2.  What  birds  are  of  greatest  value  to  the  farmer? 

3.  What  birds  in  your  state  are  protected  by  law?     What 
birds  are  considered  harmful  ? 

4.  In  what  way  is  the  ichneumon  fly  useful  ? 

5.  What  service  is  rendered  to  the  farmer  by  bumblebees? 

6.  In  what  ways  are  toads  useful  on  the  farm? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  Find  out  by  observation  what  things  are  eaten  by  the 
various  species  of  birds.     Make  a  list  of  birds  that  search  for 
food  among  the  leaves  of  trees ;  of  birds  that  search  for  insects 
in  the  bark  of  trees ;  of  birds  that  catch  flying  insects ;  of  birds 
that  eat  weed  seeds ;    of  birds  that  live  on  insects  and  other 
small  animals  in  the  ground. 

2.  In  the  fall  look  for  large  caterpillars  whose  backs  are  cov- 
ered with  small,  white  cocoons  that  inclose  the  pupae  of   ich- 
neumon flies.     When  you  find  such  a  caterpillar,  keep  it  in  a 
glass  jar  until  the  adult  flies  emerge  from  the  cocoons.     An  ich- 
neumon fly  laid  her  eggs  in  or  on  the  body  of  the  caterpillar. 
The  young  maggots  that  hatched  from  the  eggs  fed  upon  the 
blood  of  the  caterpillar,  and  some  time  before  its  death  they 
came  out  to  the  surface  and  formed  cocoons  about  themselves. 
You  may  find  a  caterpillar  at  the  time  when  the  maggots  are 
coming  out  of  its  body.     As  you  watch,  you  may  see  the  forma- 
tion of  the  cocoons. 


THE   FARMER'S   FRIENDS  245 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins :  54,  Some  common  birds  in  their  relation 
to  agriculture;  196,  Usefulness  of  the  American  toad;  456, 
Our  grosbeaks  and  their  value  to  agriculture ;  506,  Food  of  some 
well-known  birds  of  forest,  farm,  and  garden  ;  513,  Fifty  common 
birds  of  farm  and  orchard. 

Selected    Readings:    The    Birds    of    Killingworth,  —  Long- 
fellow;  The  Meadow  Lark,  —  Hamlin  Garland;    Bluebird,— 
T.  B.  Aldrich;  Song  the  Oriole  Sings,  —  W.  D.  Ho  well  s  ;  Song 
of  the  Toad,  —  John  Burroughs. 


LESSON  LIV 
IMPROVEMENT   OF  PLANTS  AND   ANIMALS 

Selecting  seed.  —  Each  fall  the  successful  farmer 
goes  through  his  cornfield  and  selects  the  seed  corn 
from  the  best  plants  in  the  field.  He  is  sure  that  the 
seed  from  stalks  with  large,  well-filled  ears  will  produce 
a  crop  of  high  yield  the  following  summer.  When  the 
forester  goes  through  the  forest  to  select  seeds  from 
which  to  grow  young  trees,  he  is  careful  to  gather  seeds 
from  only  healthy  and  well-formed  trees.  He  knows 
that  the  best  trees  bear  seeds  that  will  develop  into 
good  trees,  and  that  diseased  or  otherwise  defective 
trees  will  produce  seeds  that  will  develop  into  defective 
trees.  The  stock  farmer  will  use  only  the  best  animals 
for  breeding  purposes,  for  he  knows  that  "  like  pro- 
duces like."  Heredity  is  the  law  of  organic  life  that 
causes  offspring  to  resemble  the  parents.  Using  this 
law  of  heredity  the  farmer  selects  seeds  of  the  best 
plants  to  produce  the  next  crop,  and  also  chooses  only 
the  best  animals  for  breeding  purposes.  This  selec- 
tion of  the  best  plants  and  animals  to  produce  a  new 
generation  is  one  of  the  ways  in  which  improvements  of 
domesticated  plants  and  animals  have  come  about. 

Law  of  variation.  —  While  offspring  resemble  the 
parents,  yet  they  are  not  similar  to  the  parents  in  every 

246 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   PLANTS   AND    ANIMALS      247 

particular.  The  law  in  organic  life  by  which  offspring 
have  some  difference  or  variation  from  the  parents  is 
called  the  law  of  variation.  By  methods  of  breeding 
that  cause  variations  to  become  permanent  characters, 
we  have  obtained  beef  cattle  and  dairy  cattle,  mutton 
sheep  and  wool  sheep,  draft  horses  and  race  horses, 
and  many  other  breeds,  each  of  which  possesses  some 
particular  advantage. 

Environment  largely  determines  the  character  of 
plants  and  animals.  For  example,  on  the  lower  slopes 
of  high  mountains,  where  the  climate  and  soil  are  fa- 
vorable, the  evergreen  trees  are  large  .and  of  good 
form,  while  at  the  upper  limit  of  trees  near  the  snow 
line  the  evergreens,  although  of  the  same  species  as 
those  of  the  lower  forests,  are  only  two  or  three  feet 
high  and  bushy  in  form.  At  this  high  elevation  the 
hard  conditions  of  life  have  stunted  the  trees.  The 
small  Shetland  ponies  are  the  result  of  the  severe  cli- 
matic conditions  of  their  native  home,  the  Shetland 
Islands,  of  the  far  north.  By  making  a  better  environ- 
ment for  the  domesticated  animals  and  plants  man  has 
greatly  improved  them.  Shelter  from  severe  weather, 
and  the  proper  amount  and  kind  of  food  have  made 
the  farm  animals  more  serviceable  to  man  than  their 
wild  ancestors.  By  improving  the  soil  man  has  im- 
proved the  character  of  cultivated  plants. 

Crossbreeding  is  another  method  of  improving 
plants  and  animals.  For  example,  one  variety  of 
corn  may  have  one  very  useful  character,  and  another 


248     IMPROVEMENT   OF   PLANTS   AND   ANIMALS 

variety  may  have  a  different  useful  character ;  and 
by  a  crossing  of  the  two  varieties  a  new  variety  may  be 
obtained  that  will  possess  the  two  useful  characters 
of  both  parent  varieties.  Crossbreeding  either  of 
plants  or  of  animals  always  produces  variations,  but 
these  variations  may  be  of  no  value.  If  there  is  to  be 
a  gain  in  crossbreeding,  the  new  variation  must  be  an 
improvement,  and  must  become  a  hereditary  char- 
acter in  the  new  variety. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  law  of  heredity  ? 

2.  How  does  the  farmer  use  the  law  of  heredity  to  improve 
plants  and  animals  ? 

3.  What  is  the  law  of  variation? 

4.  What  effect  has  environment  upon  qualities  of  plants  and 
animals?     Give  examples. 

5.  What  is  crossbreeding  ?       j 

REFERENCES 

Write  to  your  Agricultural  College  for  bulletins  on  animal 
breeding  and  plant  breeding. 


LESSON  LV 
IRRIGATION   FARMING 

Irrigation  is  the  application  of  water  to  the  land  in 
addition  to  that  received  by  the  fall  of  rain  and  snow. 
While  irrigation  is  generally  confined  to  arid  and  semi- 
arid  regions,  yet  to  a  limited  extent  it  is  practiced  in 
humid  regions.  An  arid  region  is  usually  defined  as 
a  part  of  the  country  in  which  the  total  precipitation 
for  the  year  amounts  to  less  than  fifteen  inches  of  water. 
A  region  having  an  annual  precipitation  of  from  fifteen 
to  twenty-five  inches  is  regarded  as  semiarid  land.  The 
term  "precipitation"  includes  rain  and  snow,  ten  inches 
of  snow  being  equal,  on  an  average,  to  one  inch  of  rain. 


250  IRRIGATION   FARMING 

Systems  of  irrigation.  -  -  The  most  common  irrigation 
system  consists  of  a  dam  across  a  stream  from  which 
the  water  is  taken,  a  canal  that  leads  the  water  to  the 
area  to  be  watered,  and  the  laterals  or  small  ditches 
through  which  the  water  is  brought  from  the  canal 
to  the  farms.  The  dam  across  the  stream  may  simply 
divert  part  of  the  water  into  the  canal,  or  it  may 
be  so  large  that  it  converts  a  part  of  the  valley 
on  the  upper  side  into  an  immense  reservoir  in 
which  the  flood  waters  may  be  stored  for  irrigation 
purposes. 

Methods  of  applying  water.  -  -  There  are  several 
methods  of  applying  water  to  the  soil.  The  kind  of 
crop,  the  size  of  the  irrigated  area,  and  the  character 
of  the  soil  and  surface  are  important  factors  that  de- 
termine the  method  of  applying  the  water. 

In  aerial  irrigation  the  water  is  distributed  by  pipes 
and  sprinklers.  Lawns  are  commonly  so  watered. 
Orchards,  gardens,  and  greenhouse  benches  are  often 
subirrigated ;  that  is,  by  underground  pipes  or  tiles 
the  water  is  carried  to  the  soil  around  the  roots  of 
the  plants. 

Pasture  grasses  and  hay  and  small  grains  are  usually 
irrigated  by  flooding.  The  water  is  run  directly  over 
the  surface  and  around  the  growing  plants.  In  furrow 
irrigation  the  water  is  run  in  furrows  between  the  rows 
of  trees  or  other  plants.  This  is  the  method  by  which 
orchards,  com,  potatoes,  and  garden  vegetables  are 
usually  watered. 


IRRIGATION   FARMING 


251 


On  very  level  land,  basins  are  formed  by  throwing 
up  ridges  of  soil.  A  basin  may  be  a  small  one  around 
each  tree  in  an  orchard,  or  it  may  cover  one  or  more 
acres  of  a  field.  When  the  plants  need  water,  it  is 
allowed  to  flow 
into  the  basins 
from  the  ditches 
or  laterals.  This 
method  is  called 
basin  irrigation. 
In  check  irriga- 
tion ridges  of 
soil  are  thrown 
up  across  a  field 
to  check  and 
guide  the  water 
that  flows  over 
the  surface  from 
the  lateral.  This 
method,  called 
check  irrigation, 
is  a  modification  of  flood  irrigation.  There  are'  several 
modifications  of  each  of  these  methods. 

Irrigation  in  ancient  times.  —  Irrigation  farming  has 
been  practiced  since  very  ancient  times.  In  Egypt, 
thousands  of  years  ago,  there  were  irrigation  works, 
and  the  annual  overflows  of  the  Nile  also  irrigated  large 
areas  in  the  river  valley.  In  the  southwestern  part  of 
the  United  States,  long  before  the  discovery  of  America 


IRRIGATING  FRUIT  TREES 


252  IRRIGATION   FARMING 

by  Columbus,  the  native  people  had  large  irrigation 
systems.  The  first  irrigation  in  this  country  in  modern 
times  was  done  by  the  people  of  Utah  in  1847,  when 
the  water  of  City  Creek  was  used  to  irrigate  the  gardens 
near  Great  Salt  Lake.  At  the  present  time  several 
millions  of  acres  in  the  United  States  are  farmed  by 
irrigation,  and  great  irrigation  works  are  being  con- 
structed for  the  reclamation  of  more  land. 

In  Japan,  raising  crops  by  irrigation  has  been  prac- 
ticed many  years,  although  the  annual  rainfall  amounts 
to  as  much  as  forty  inches.  In  parts  of  our  own  coun- 
try, where  the  rainfall  is  thirty-five  or  forty  inches, 
some  farmers  are  adopting  irrigation  to  supplement 
the  rainfall.  In  the  intensive  growing  of  fruits  and 
vegetables  in  market  gardens,  an  irrigation  system  may 
often  save  the  crops  in  dry  seasons. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  irrigation  ? 

2.  In  what  sections  of  our  country  is  irrigation  carried  on 
extensively  ? 

3.  What  other  countries  practice  irrigation? 

4.  What  are  the  main  parts  of  an  irrigation  system? 

5.  By  what  methods  is  water  distributed  to  the  crops? 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins :  138,  Irrigation  in  field  and  garden ;  158, 
How  to  build  small  irrigation  ditches ;  263,  Practical  informa- 
tion for  beginners  in  irrigation ;  392,  Irrigation  of  sugar  beets ; 
399,  Irrigation  of  grain  ;  404,  Irrigation  of  orchards. 


LESSON  LVI 
DRAINAGE 

Importance  of  drainage.  —  Farm  land  should  be 
well  drained  in  order  to  be  highly  productive.  At  one 
time  it  was  thought  that  drainage  was  useful  only  in 
removing  the  surface  water  from  low  ground.  After 
some  time  the  farmers  realized  that  underdrainage  is 
valuable  even  on  lands  that  have  good  natural  drainage. 

Underdrainage.  —  A  ditch  for  underdrainage  is 
made  by  digging  a  trench  from  two  to  four  feet  deep 
and  with  sufficient  slope  that  water  will  readily  flow 
to  lower  levels.  On  the  bottom  of  the  trench  drain 
tiles  are  placed  end  to  end  to  form  a  continuous  tube, 
and  then  the  trench  is  filled  with  earth.  The  depth 
of  the  ditch  puts  the  tile  beyond  the  reach  of  the  plow 
and  frost  and  permits  the  draining  a\vay  of  the  ground 
water  to  the  proper  depth.  The  water  enters  the  tube 
through  the  spaces  between  the  ends  of  the  tiles. 

Effects  of  drainage.  —  Drainage  not  only  helps  the 
crop  by  removing  the  free  water  from  the  soil,  but  also 
aids  it  to  survive  a  drought.  In  undrained  land  the 
ground  water  lies  near  the  surface  until  dry  weather 
sets  in,  and  the  root  system  of  the  crop  will  be  confined 
to  the  shallow  layer  of  soil  above  the  water  line.  If  a 
long  dry  period  sets  in,  the  ground  water  sinks  to  a 

253 


254 


DRAINAGE 


depth  of  several  feet,  and  the  plants  with  their  roots 
near  the  surface  will  surfer  from  the  drought.  In  land 
with  proper  underdrainage  the  ground  water  is  not 
near  the  surface  at  any  time,  and  the  roots  of  the  crop 
sink  deeper  into  the  soil  and  thus  have  a  greater  depth 
of  soil  from  which  to  get  the  food  materials ;  and  the 


DRAIN  TILES 

greater  root  depth  also  enables  the  plants  to  get  a  larger 
supply  of  moisture  during  a  dry  season. 

Roots  need  air.  —  It  must  be  remembered  that  the 
roots  of  plants  need  air,  and  that  free  water  in  the  soil 
excludes  the  air.  In  drained  soils,  as  the  water  passes 
from  the  soil  into  the  ditch  the  air  enters  the  pores  of 
the  soil  to  replace  the  water.  Thus  good  drainage 
admits  air  to  the  soil  and  roots. 


DRAINAGE  255 

Drainage  and  warmth.  —  A  wet  soil  becomes  warm 
more  slowly  than  a  dry  soil,  for  the  water  in  the  soil 
takes  up  so  much  of  the  sun's  heat.  Drainage,  by 
removing  the  surplus  water,  hastens  the  warming  of 
the  soil  in  the  spring. 

Swamp  lands.  —  In  many  soils  that  are  irrigated, 
drainage  is  necessary.  An  application  of  water  may 
so  saturate  the  soil  that  unless  there  is  good  drainage, 
it  becomes  unproductive.  In  the  United  States  there 
are  still  extensive  areas  of  swamp  lands  that  may  be 
converted  into  fertile  farms  by  draining  away  the 
water. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  advantages  of  having  the  soil  well  drained? 

2.  In  your  locality  how  much  of  the  land  is  unproductive 
because  of  poor  drainage  ? 

3.  How  does  underdrainage  help  crops  to  survive  a  drought? 

4.  Why  does  a  drained  soil  become  warm  earlier  in  the  spring 
than  a  wet  soil? 

5.  What  things  determine  the  depth  at  which  a  tile  ditch 
should  be  placed  ? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  Draw  a  map  of  the  farm  on  which  you  live,  showing  the 
location  of  the  ditches. 

2.  Visit  a  tile  factory  and  study  the  operations  in  the  manu- 
facture of  tiles. 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'    Bulletins:     187,    Drainage    of    farm    lands;    371, 
Drainage  of  irrigated  lands. 


LESSON  LVII 
DRY  FARMING 

Farming  in  semiarid  regions.  —  In  the  eastern  half 
of  the  United  States  the  rainfall  of  from  twenty-five 
to  sixty  inches  is  sufficient  for  successful  agriculture 
by  common  methods.  In  semiarid  regions,  where  the 
rainfall  amounts  to  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  inches, 
the  production  of  profitable  crops  is  quite  uncertain 
under  the  ordinary  farm  practice.  To  raise  crops 
without  irrigation  in  these  regions  requires  special 
methods  of  tillage  and  special  kinds  of  crops.  The 
growing  of  drought-resistant  crops  by  tillage  methods 
that  enable  the  soil  to  gather  and  hold  the  largest  pos- 
sible amount  of  moisture  is  dry  farming. 

Soil  moisture.  -  -  There  are  three  ways  by  which  the 
soil  loses  the  moisture  it  receives  from  rain  and  snow. 
A  large  part  of  it  sinks  into  the  ground  and  passes  away 
by  drainage,  part  of  it  comes  to  the  surface  and  evap- 
orates into  the  air,  and  another  part  is  taken  up  by 
the  growing  plants  and  transpired  into  the  air  from 
the  leaves. 

Methods  of  retaining  soil  moisture.  --To  secure  and 
retain  the  largest  possible  amount  of  soil  moisture  from 
rain  and  snow,  the  following  operations  are  carried  on 
in  the  dry-farming  belt. 

256 


DRY    FARMING  257 

(1)  Plowing  the  soil  deep  and  pulverizing  it  to  ob- 
tain a  fine,  loose  texture,  so  that  the  soil  will  absorb 
all  the  moisture  that  falls  as  rain  or  snow. 

(2)  Compacting  the  subsoil,  if  it  is  very  loose,  so 
that  the  soil  particles,  by  lying  closer  together,  will 
enable  water  from  below  to  rise  within  reach  of  the 
roots  of  the  growing  crops. 

(3)  Stirring  the  upper  three  or  four  inches  of  soil 
so  that  it  acts  as  a  blanket  or  mulch  to  prevent  the 
moisture  from  reaching  the  surface  where  it  would 
evaporate  into  the  air. 

(4)  Keeping  down  all  weeds,  which  take  up  moisture 
from  the  soil  and  by  transpiration  allow  it  to  pass  into 
the  air. 

(5)  Tilling   the   land   during   one   season   by   these 
special   methods  before   planting   the   crop.     By   this 
system  the  crop  gets  practically  all  the  moisture  that 
comes  to  the  land  in  two  seasons  instead  of  one,  and 
the  farmer  has  only  one  half  of  his  land  in  crop  each 
year. 

(6)  Adding  vegetable  matter  to  the  soil,  which  will 
help  to  absorb  and  hold  water  as  well  as  add  food  ma- 
terials for  plants. 

Plants  suitable  for  dry  farming.  -  -  The  second  part 
of  dry  farming  is  the  growing  of  plants  that  can  be 
raised  with  a  small  amount  of  water.  Our  most 
drought-resistant  plants  are  those  that  have  been  pro- 
duced in  the  semiarid  region  of  our  own  country  or 
have  been  brought  from  other  dry  countries.  Some  of 

B.    AND   D.    AC.  —  17 


258 


DRY   FARMING 


DRY  GROWN  WHEAT 


DRY   FARMING  259 

these  are  durum  or  macaroni  wheat,  spring  and  winter 
emmer,  Kafir  corn,  milo  maize,  sweet  clover,  and 
brome  grass. 

Dry  farming  an  important  method.  —  Dry  farming 
has  been  practiced  in  parts  of  the  West  for  a  number  of 
years,  and  is  now  being  made  a  special  study  by  farm- 
ers in  all  parts  of  the  arid  and  semiarid  sections  of  the 
country.  Through  these  methods  much  land  that 
was  not  adapted  to  farming  under  old  methods  has 
come  under  cultivation,  thus  greatly  increasing  the 
whole  farm  area  of  the  country. 

QUESTIONS 

1 .  What  is  dry  farming  ? 

2.  By  what  methods  is  sufficient  water  stored  in  the  soil? 

3.  In  what  section  of  our  country  is  dry  farming  carried  on? 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  drought-resistant  crops? 

5.  Why  are  large  farms  necessary  in  the  dry-farming  region? 

REFERENCES 

.If  you  live  in  the  dry -farming  section,  write  to  the  Agricultural 
College  of  your  state  for  bulletins  on  dry  farming.  Yearbook  of 
Agriculture,  1911:  Some  misconceptions  concerning  dry  farm- 
ing, pp.  247-256;  The  water  economy  of  dry-land  crops,  pp. 
351-362. 


LESSON  LVIII 
BEAUTIFYING   THE   HOME   GROUNDS 

Importance  of  beautiful  surroundings.  —  Every  one 
who  has  driven  along  country  roads  has  felt  the  gloom 
of  ugly  homesteads,  and  also  the  charm  of  beautiful 
farm  homes,  many  of  which  are  less  expensive  than 
the  ugly  places.  Every  farm  home  can  be  made  more 
beautiful  by  planting  trees,  shrubs,  vines,  flowers,  and 
grass.  It  requires  a  little  time  and  thought,  but  al- 
most no  money,  to  transform  an  ugly  place  into  an 


AN  UNATTRACTIVE  FARM  HOUSE 

attractive  one.  Not  only  does  the  beauty  of  farm 
surroundings  add  to  the  happiness  and  healthfulness 
of  farm  life,  but  it  gives  also  a  distinctly  higher  market 
value  to  any  farm. 

260 


BEAUTIFYING  THE   HOME    GROUNDS        261 

Neatness.  —  Very  much  of  the  disorderliness  of  a 
farmstead  is  due  to  a  poor  arrangement  of  farm  build- 
ings. For  example,  a  yard  in  which  live  stock  have 
free  range  should  never  be  placed  between  the  house 


TREES  AND  SHRUBS  GIVE  THE  HOUSE  A  MORE  PLEASING  APPEARANCE 

and  barn.  A  miry  barnyard  between  the  house  and 
barn  is  not  only  unsightly  but  inconvenient  and  dirty. 
Neatness,  too,  is  one  of  the  necessary  conditions  to 
beauty  of  surroundings.  Broken  fences  and  gates 
should  be  promptly  repaired  ;  and  ashes,  tin  cans,  and 
other  rubbish  should  not  be  allowed  to  accumulate 
near  the  house. 

Lawns.  —  A  grassy  lawn  is  one  of  the  most  important 
features  of  a  homestead.  The  lawn  should  be  smooth, 
well  drained,  and  covered  with  a  carpet  of  grass.  Poul- 
try are  a  common  cause  of  unsightly  house  yards. 
To  prevent  grass  plots  and  flower  beds  from  being  con- 
verted into  dust  baths,  and  to  insure  clean  walks,  chick- 
ens and  other  poultry  should  be  excluded  from  the  lawn. 


262        BEAUTIFYING  THE   HOME   GROUNDS 


Shrubbery.  -  -  The  selection  and  placing  of  shrubbery 
and  flowers  should  be  done  with  good  taste.  Lawns 
should  not  be  overcrowded  with  flower  beds  and 
shrubs.  A  good  place  for  flowers  is  along  the  founda- 
tion of  the  house  and  the  border  of  the  walks.  Some- 
times a  pleasing  effect  can  be  obtained  by  filling  an 
angle  at  the  side  of  a  house  with  flowering  shrubs 

or  small  evergreen 
trees  closely  massed 
together. 

Trees  around  a 
homestead  serve  for 
beauty,  shade,  and 
protection  against 
storms.  In  locali- 
ties where  high 
winds  are  frequent, 
a  shelter  belt  of 
trees  is  planted  on  the  windward  side  of  the  house,  and 
adds  much  to  the  attractiveness  of  the  place.  For 
shade  and  beauty  some  of  the  fruit  trees  serve  well. 
In  such  trees  as  the  apple  tree  there  is  a  high  degree 
of  beauty  and  utility  combined. 

Paint  is  an  important  factor  in  beautifying  the  farm- 
stead. Some  buildings  are  unsightly  for  lack  of  paint, 
and  others  are  distressingly  ugly  by  reason  of  the  color  of 
the  paint,  or  the  use  of  several  colors  that  lack  harmony. 
No  farm  home  should  be  vulgarized  by  glaring  advertise- 
ments spread  over  the  side  or  roof  of  a  barn. 


WINDBREAK  OF  TREES 


263 

You  can  help.  —  Boys  and  girls  can  do  much  to  beau- 
tify their  home  surroundings.  They  should  always 
keep  in  mind  that  it  costs  little  to  make  the  homestead 
attractive ;  and  that  beauty,  usefulness,  and  health- 
fulness  belong  together. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  things  that  make  ugly  surroundings 
on  a  farm  ? 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  beautiful  surround- 
ings? 

3.  By  what  means  may  a  good  lawn  be  secured? 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  disadvantages  of  an  overshaded 
lawn? 

5.  What  plants  serve  well  for  beautifying  a  farmstead? 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  plan  of  a  farmstead,  showing  the  location  of  house 
and  lawn,  well,  barn,  sheds,  garden,  orchard,  lots,  driveways, 
and  walks. 

2.  Draw  a  planting  plan  for  a  lawn,  showing  the  location  of 
trees,  shrubs,  flowers,  walks,  etc. 

3.  Draw  a  plan  of  the  most  beautiful   farmstead  in  your 
locality. 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  185,  Beautifying  the  home  grounds; 
The  lawn;  494,  Lawn  soils  and  lawns. 


LESSON  LIX 
THE   FARM   HOME 

Home.  —  A  home  should  be  more  than  a  place  of 
shelter.  It  should  be  also  a  place  of  inspiration,  joy, 
and  peace.  The  home  is  the  foundation  of  civilization, 
because  it  helps  us  more  than  any  other  agency  to 
secure  vigorous  and  good  character. 

Modern  conveniences  in  the  country.  —  We  are  apt 
to  get  wrong  ideas  of  the  so-called  advantages  of  city 
life.  All  the  modern  conveniences  of  city  houses  are 
going  into  farmhouses,  thus  increasing  the  comfort 
and  healthfulness  of  these  homes.  The  loneliness  of 
farm  life  has  largely  disappeared  by  reason  of  good 
roads,  electric  railroads,  rural  mail  delivery,  and  tele- 
phones. The  abundance  of  fresh  air  and  ground  space, 
the  freedom  from  the  dust  and  noise  of  streets,  the 
inspiration  of  close  contact  with  nature,  and  the  op- 
portunity for  quiet  study  and  reading  are  some  of  the 
best  features  of  home  life  on  the  farm. 

Window  plants  can  add  much  to  the  beauty  of  the 
home.  Caring  for  these  plants  and  watching  their 
growth  will  furnish  many  pleasant  hours.  Geraniums, 
begonias,  and  heliotropes  can  be  started  easily  from 
cuttings.  For  foliage  the  English  ivy  and  many  of  the 
ferns  are  desirable  house  plants.  The  tulip,  hyacinth, 

264 


THE   FARM    HOME 


265 


and  narcissus  are  good  bulb  plants  for  winter  blooming 
and  are  easily  grown. 

House  plants  need  rich  soil  with  good  drainage. 
The  air  should  not  be  too  hot  and  dry.  In  most 
houses  the  air  is  too  dry  for  the  health  of  plants  and 
people.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  keep  them  well 
watered  and  free  from 
insects  and  fungous 
diseases. 

Importance  of  beau- 
tiful surroundings.  - 
The  advantages  that 
come  from  the  isolation 
of  each  farm  home  may 
become  disadvantages, 
if  the  proper  home  con- 
ditions do  not  exist. 
There  may  be  a  bitter 
monotony  in  farm  life, 
if  the  surroundings  are 
ugly,  and  if  the  spirit  of  the  home  is  harsh  and  unkind. 
Some  farmers  do  not  realize  the  value  of  beautiful 
houses  with  pictures,  music,  and  books,  and  they  miss 
much  of  the  pleasure  and  inspiration  that  otherwise 
they  would  enjoy. 

Peace  in  the  home.  -  The  spirit  of  the  family  that 
lives  in  the  house  determines  more  the  character  of  the 
home  than  the  house  and  surroundings  do.  Nearly 


WINDOW  PLANTS  BEAUTIFY  THE  HOME 


266  THE   FARM   HOME 

all  the  work  of  the  family  is  done  on  the  farm,  and  the 
members  of  the  family  are  together  more  than  the 
members  of  many  families  in  the  city  are.  The  close 
association  during  hours  of  work  and  recreation  is  a 
blessing,  if  love  prevails  in  the  thoughts,  words,  and 
acts  of  each  one  in  the  family. 

The  ideal  farm  home  is  one  in  which,  to  the  natural- 
ness and  independence  of  farm  life,  there  are  added  good 
manners,  correct  speech,  and  the  high  virtues  that 
have  given  character  to  the  best  American  homes. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  farm  life  over  city 
life  ?     What  are  some  of  the  disadvantages  ? 

2.  What  conveniences  do  we  now  have,  that  make  farm  life 
more  attractive  ? 

3.  Of  what  value  are  books  and  pictures  ? 

4.  Do  the  farmers  in  your  community  have  proper  regard 
for  the  things  that  develop  real  culture  in  their  homes  ? 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  126,  Practical  suggestions  for  farm 
buildings;  270,  Modern  conveniences  for  the  farm  home. 

Selected  Readings:  Little  Brown  Hands,  —  Mary  H.  Krout; 
Snowbound,  —  J.  G.  Whittier;  Being  a  Boy,  chapters  III,  XI, 
XII,  XIII,  —  C.  D.  Warner. 


LESSON  LX 
THE   CALL  TO   THE   FARM 

FARMING  is  one  of  the  most  pleasant  occupations. 
Nearly  everybody  is  interested  in  the  cultivation  of  the 
soil  and  in  the  raising  of  animals.  Indeed,  there  seems 
to  be  a  natural  longing  to  work  with  the  soil,  which 
comes  to  every  one  sometime  during  his  life. 

Farming  demands  intelligence.  -  -  The  farmer  works 
with  living  plants  and  animals  and  with  all  the  natural 
forces  in  soil,  air,  water,  and  sunshine  that  affect  the 
growth  of  plants  and  animals.  Boys  and  girls  should 
fully  realize  that  the  farm  offers  a  good  field  for  the 
exercise  of  all  the  skill  and  scholarship  that  they  can 
attain.  Although  farming  is  a  special  business  that 
requires  broad  and  thorough  knowledge,  yet  one  may 
do  fairly  successful  work  on  the  farm  while  he  is  learning 
the  underlying  principles  of  the  science  and  art  of 
agriculture. 

A  desirable  occupation.  -  -  There  has  been  a  false 
impression  that  tilling  the  soil  is  a  hard  and  low  kind 
of  labor.  Nothing  could  be  further  from  the  truth. 
Great  minds  in  all  ages  have  considered  farming  a 
most  desirable  occupation.  All  accomplishment  comes 
through  some  form  of  labor ;  and  labor  becomes  a 

267 


268  THE    CALL   TO   THE   FARM 

pleasure  and  an  inspiration  when  one  does  his  work 
with  interest  and  intelligence.  Work  is  wholesome,  and 
no  other  kind  of  work  leads  to  longer,  happier  lives, 
and  greater  development  of  mind  and  body  than  of 
producing  useful  things  from  the  soil. 

Modern  conveniences.  —  Farming  is  continually 
becoming  more  pleasant  and  more  profitable.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  work  longer  hours,  or  do  more  work 
than  in  other  walks  of  life.  With  the  growth  of  knowl- 
edge and  the  development  of  machinery  and  methods, 
which  enable  the  farmer  to  do  more  work  with  less 
effort,  there  is  more  inducement  to  lead  this  kind  of 
life.  In  these  modern  times  the  successful  farmer  can 
build  a  house  that  has  every  convenience  and  luxury 
to  be  found  in  the  best  city  house.  He  can  produce 
larger  and  better  crops  with  less  labor  than  formerly, 
and  has  as  much  or  more  leisure  for  study  and  pleasure. 

Living  close  to  the  soil.  —  In  short,  the  people  on 
the  farm  feed  and  clothe  the  world  and  do  much  to 
supply  it  with  strong  men  and  women  of  force  and 
virtue.  The  hope  of  the  world  is  greatness  of  char- 
acter. Living  close  to  the  soil  and  in  harmony  with 
nature  makes  for  that  simplicity  which  is  greatness. 
Any  one  who  decides  to  be  a  farmer  may  well  be  proud 
of  the  life  work  he  has  chosen. 


INDEX 


Acidity  of  soil,  29. 

.Agriculture,  7. 

Air  in  soil,  2 1 . 

Albumin,  238. 

Alcohol,  107,  124. 

Alfalfa,  87-90. 

Allspice,  161. 

Almonds,  190. 

Alsike  clover,  85. 

American  trotting  horse,  208. 

Angora  goats,  220. 

Apples,  167-170. 

Apricots,  174. 

Arbor  Day,  196. 

Arid  region,  32,  249. 

Ash,  63. 

Ayrshire,  213. 

Bacteria,  23,  63,  93,  200. 
Balanced  ration,  238. 
Bamboo,  64. 
Bantams,  225. 
Barley,  118—121. 
Beans,  95. 
Beef  cattle,  213 
Bees,  229-232. 
Beet  sugar,  138. 
Belgian,  209. 
Berkshire,  223. 
Berries,  185-188. 
Beverages,  157-160 
Birds,  241-244. 
Blackberries,  187. 
Black  locust,  53. 
Blue  grass.  81. 
Boll  weevil,  232,  235. 
Brahmas,  225. 
Brome  grass,  259. 
Broom  corn,  91. 
Buckwheat,  64. 
Budding,  55. 
Buffalo  grass,  43. 


Cacao,  159. 
Calcium,  28. 
Canaigre,  163. 
Carbohydrates,  238. 
Casein,  238. 
Cattle,  211-215. 
Cereals,  64. 
Cherries,  173. 
Chester  White,  223. 
Chestnuts,  189. 
Cheviot,  216. 
Chickens,  225. 
Chicle,  164. 
Chocolate,  159. 
Cinnamon,  161. 
Citron,  179. 
Citrus  fruits,  176-179. 
Clay,  23. 

Cleveland  Bay,  209. 
Climate,  14-20,  103. 
Clover,  83-86. 
Cloves,  161. 
Clydesdale,  209. 
Cochins,  225. 
Cocoa,  159. 
Codling  moth,  234. 
Coffee,  157,  158. 
Commerce,  8. 
Corn  products,  107. 
Cotswold,  216. 
Cotton,  125-129. 
Cotton  boll  weevil,  232-235. 
Cotton  gin,  127. 
Cottonseed  meal,  128. 
Cottonseed  oil,  128. 
Cotyledons,  50. 
Cowpeas,  94. 
Cranberry,  185. 
Crimson  clover,  85. 
Crop,  7. 

Crossbreeding,  247. 
Cucumbers,  149- 
269 


270 


INDEX 


Cultivation,  38,  39,  105. 
Cultivators,  38. 
Currants,  188. 
Cuttings,  52,  144. 

Dairy  cattle,  213. 

Dairy  products,  214. 

Dewberries,  187. 

Dibble,  59. 

Downs,  216. 

Draft  animals,  70. 

Drainage,  253-255. 

Drought-resistant  plants,  257. 

Drug  plants,  67. 

Dry  farming,  256-259. 

Duroc  Jersey,  223. 

Durum,  259. 

Dwarf  rape,  81. 

Eggs,  225. 
Einkorn,  101. 
Embryo,  49. 
Emmer,  101. 
Engines,  -70. 
English  Coach,  209. 
Essex,  223. 
Evaporation,  32. 

Farms,  10-13. 
Fats,  238-240. 
Feeders,  204. 
Fertility  of  soil,  26-30. 
Fertilizers,  27-29. 
Film  water,  31,  35- 
Flax,  130-132. 
Floriculture,  8. 
Florida  clover,  85. 

Fodder,  81. 

Food  of  farm  animals,  237-240. 

Forage,  79. 

Forestry,  194-197. 

Forests,  194-195. 

Formaldehyde,  201. 

Free  water,  32. 

French  Coach,  209. 

Frosts,  1 8. 

Galloway,  213. 
Gardening,  154-15°- 
Geese,  227. 


erm,  49. 

ierman  Coach,  209. 
termination,  50,  109. 
iinger,  161. 
jinseng,  161. 
jlucose,  139. 

luten,  238. 

oats,  216-221. 

ooseberries,  188. 

rourds,  149. 

rrafting,  54~55- 

.rapefruit,  176-179. 

irapes,  180-184. 
Brasses,  64. 

razing,  7,  80. 

rowing  season,  15. 

uayule,  163. 
Guernsey,  213. 

Hackney,  209. 
Hambletonian,  208. 
Harrow,  46. 
Harvesting,  73-77. 
Hay,  76,  77- 
Heavy  soil,  24. 
Hemp,  132,  133. 
Henequin,  133. 
Heredity,  246. 
Hereford,  213. 
Hessian  fly,  232,  235. 
Hickory  nuts,  189. 
Holstein,  213. 
Home  grounds,  260-263. 
Honey,  229-232. 
Hops,  165. 

Horned  Dorsets,  216. 
Horses,  206-210. 
Hotbed,  47,  57. 
House  fly,  233,  234. 
Humus,  23,  29. 

Iceland  pony,  208. 
Ichneumon  fly,  243,  244. 
Implements,  38,  46. 
Indian  pony,  208. 
Indigo,  163. 
Insects,  229-236. 
Irrigation,  249,  252. 

Japan  clover,  85. 
Jersey,  213. 


INDEX 


271 


Jerusalem  corn,  QI. 
Jute,  134- 

Kafir  corn,  gi. 

Kentucky  saddle  horse,  208. 

Kumquat,  178. 

Ladybird  beetle,  243. 

Lamb,  218. 

Lawns,  261. 

Legumes,  27,  68,  87,  03,  192. 

Leicester,  216. 

Lemons,  176-179. 

Lentils,  06. 

Light  soil,  24. 

Lime,  29. 

Lincoln,  216. 

Loam,  23. 

Loganberry,  188. 

Malaria,  232. 

Malt,  1 20. 

Manila  hemp,  134. 

Maple  sugar,  138,  139. 

Melons,  147-149. 

Merino,  216. 

Millet,  QI. 

Milo  maize,  QI. 

Minerals,  237. 

Mixed  farming,  203-205. 

Modern  conveniences,  264,  268. 

Mohair,  220. 

Moisture  in  soil,  31-34. 

Molds,  63. 

Morgan,  208. 

Mosquitoes,  232-236. 

Mulberry,  67,  229. 

Mulch,  soil,  35,  105. 

Mules,  209. 

Mushrooms,  63,  104. 

Muskmelons,  148. 

Mutton,  218. 

Myosin,  238. 

National  forests,  195. 
Nectarines,  172. 
Nitrogen,  27,  93. 
Nodules,  93. 
Nurseries,  58. 
Nutmegs,  161. 
Nuts,  189-193. 


Oats,  1 14-117. 
Oxford  Downs,  216. 

Paint,  262. 
Peaches,  171,  172.. 
Peanuts,  190-193. 
Pear  blight,  200. 
Pears,  169. 
Peas,  94. 
Pecans,  190. 
Pepper,  161. 
Peppermint,  164. 
Percheron,  209. 
Phosphorus,  28. 
Photosynthesis,  62. 
Pigeons,  227. 
Pinon  nuts,  189. 
Plant  diseases,  200-202. 
Plant  lice,  234,  236. 
Plowing,  40,  42,  70. 
Plows,  40-42. 
Plums,  172. 
Plymouth  Rocks,  225. 
Poland-China,  223. 
Polled  Angus,  213. 
Pollination,  243. 
Pome  fruits,  167-170. 
Pork,  224. 
Potassium,  28. 
Potatoes,  141-146. 
Poultry,  225-228. 
Power,  69-72. 
Precipitation,  249. 
Proteins,  238-240. 
Prunes,  173. 
Pumpkins,  148,  149. 

Quinces,  169. 

Rainfall,  15,  32,  103. 
Raisins,  181. 
Raspberries,  187. 
Red  clover,  85. 
Red  Polled,  213. 
Rhode  Island  Reds.  225. 
Rice,  n  i-i  13. 
Roads,  13. 
Roller,  46. 
Root  hairs,  61. 
Roots,  43. 
Rotation  of  crops,  68. 


272 


INDEX 


Rubber,  16,3. 
Rusts,  200,  .201. 
Rye,  122,  124. 

Sand,  23,  29. 

San  Jose  scale,  243. 

Scale  insects,  234,  236. 

Scions,  54. 

Seasons,  14. 

Seedbed,  46-48. 

Seedlings,  54. 

Seeds,  49-51. 

Semiarid  land,  32,  249,  256. 

Sheep,  216-221. 

Shetland  pony,  208. 

Shire,  209. 

Shorthorn,  213. 

Shropshire  Downs,  216. 

Shrubbery,  262. 

Silage,  79. 

Silo,  79. 

Silk,  229. 

Silk  worms,  229. 

Silt,  23. 

Smuts,  200-203. 

Soil,  21-25. 

kinds  of,  23. 
Soil  mulch,  35,  105. 
Sorghums,  91. 
Spelt,  101. 
Spices,  161. 
Spring  wheat,  97. 
Squashes,  148. 
Starch,  238-240. 
Stocks,  54. 

Stone  fruits,  171-175. 
Strawberries,  186. 
Subsoil,  23. 
Suffolk  Punch,  209. 
Sugar,  62,  238. 
Sugar  beets,  138. 
Sugar  cane,  136-137. 
Sugar  plants,  135-140. 
Sunlight,  60. 
Sunshine,  17. 
Sweet  clover,  85. 
Sweet  potatoes,  143-146. 


Swine,  222-224. 
Swiss,  213. 

Tarn  worth,  223. 
Tannin,  163. 
Tea,  158,  159. 
Texture  of  soil,  28. 
Texas  fever,  232. 
Threshing  machine,  99. 
Ticks,  232. 
Tillage,  35-39- 
Tillers,  97,  114. 
Timothy,  83-86. 
Toad,  243. 
Tobacco,  150-153. 
Tomatoes,  47,  156. 
Topsoil,  23. 
Transplanting,  57-60. 
Tubercles,  68. 
Turkeys,  227. 
Twine,  133. 
Typhoid  fever,  233. 

Underdrainage,  253-255. 
Useful  birds,  241. 

Vanilla  bean,  164. 
Variation,  246. 
Vegetables,  65,  154,  156. 
Vetches,  93. 

Walnuts,  189,  190. 
Watermelons,  147. 
Water  power,  71. 
Water  supply,  1 1 . 
Weather  Bureau,  18. 
Weeds,  198-202. 
Wheat,  97-102. 
White  clover,  85. 
Windbreaks,  194. 
Windmills,  71. 
Winds,  17. 
Winter  wheat,  97. 
Woodlots,  12,  196. 
Wyandottes,  235. 

Yellow  fever,  232. 
Yorkshire,  223. 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


2  7 


SEP   25    1929 

OGT  2  2 

$£P  1  0  1931 
JUN  1  0  1952 


WJG24 


FormL-9-15m-ll,'27 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


A     001  084  968     5 


3  nsa  oofoo  ft  *'' 


